1-Within a federal system, authority is distributed between the central authority and the regional administrations. Residents engage with these levels when the act of voting for federal and regional leadership figures occurs. Many people believe that a confederation system grants the majority of authority to regional administrations while the central authority possesses restricted control. A unitary system operates differently because the central authority maintains most authority, and regional administrations receive only the control that is granted by that central authority.

2-Government authority remains distributed so that a solitary branch does not gain excessive strength. Within the United States, authority is divided between the federal government and state governments. It has been observed that a separation of powers exists among the legislative, executive, and judicial sectors. This structure functions to produce a balance of oversight because the misuse of power must be prevented by the system.

3-While the COVID-19 pandemic occurred, the federal government affected New York by providing financial resources and instruction. Recommendations regarding face coverings and medical injections were provided by federal agencies to ensure community wellbeing. Monetary aid was provided by the federal government to medical facilities, commercial enterprises, educational institutions, and residents. Even though New York determined many specific choices, experts claim that federal assistance served a significant function when the state addressed the COVID-19 pandemic.

1. Means of productions refers to the tools and materials used to produce something. In a capitalistic system these resources are privately owned and controlled and the capitalists makes profit out of this. For example, when someone makes a YouTube video they need to use resources like camera, microphone, YouTube to turn it into a final product which is the video itself. In this case YouTube is privately owned by Google who uses the video makers ad space under his video to make money. Labor is the task done to increase the value of something. Labor basically adds value to the product that was created using the means of productions. The creator of the video gives his time and effort in recording and editing the video which adds value to it. The means of production (camera, microphone, internet) does not create value by themselves. It’s the human labor that gives a finished product without this labor these materials cannot be transformed into profitable product and the capitalists wouldn’t make no money.
2. According to the video a value basically comes from the amount labor (measured by hours minutes and seconds) it takes to make something under normal conditions. The longer it takes for a laborer to make a product the higher the value of the item will be. Something becomes valuable because of the human labor put into it. It is not just about the price it is also about the amount of labor it requires to produce it.
3. Labor and value are related as labor creates value. If it takes more time to produce an item it will have more value. For example, if automation replaces human labor the process will require less labor to finish a product that means the value of the item will go down. That is why labor is the source of value in Marx’s theory.
4. Labor is the actual work that one performs. Labor power is the capacity or potential that can be brought in action and sold off to an employer in exchange for a wage. One gives away their labor power on a daily basis for a wage and the employer uses their labor(the action of working) to produce valuable items.
5. Surplus value is the extra value that workers create beyond what they get paid for. For example, if a worker works eight hours a day the first four hours of their work is enough value to pay for the worker’s wages and in the next four hours they basically work for free( as they don’t really get paid for it) making profit for the employer. It is important to know about this because it shows how capitalism works. It shows how the capitalists make their money by exploiting the workers. The employers only pay the workers for half of the value the workers produced and keep the unpaid extra to make profits for themselves. This demonstrates how the capitalistic society operates and robs off the working class from what they actually deserve.

1. a. Ideology is a set of ideas and beliefs that shape how people understand the world around them. It influences what we think of is normal, fair, or possible.
   b. An example of ideology is the idea of the U.S democracy being described as “government of the people, by the people, for the people.” This idea encourages people to believe that the government truly represents everyone and works in the public’s best interest, even when power and influence are not evenly shared.
   c. Ideology is learned through school, the media, family, and culture, so it becomes something we rarely question because we are so exposed to it. The sense of familiarity makes it feel like common sense, and it doesn’t feel forced.
   
2. The key difference is how much responsibility should fall on individuals versus the government, and how much change is seen as necessary or beneficial. Conservative ideology often emphasizes tradition, limited government, and personal responsibility. For example, conservatives often argue that government programs should be limited because people should rely more on themselves rather than the state. Liberal ideology tends to focus on equality, social justice, and the idea that government should play a role in helping people who are disadvantaged. For example, liberals often support policies such as universal healthcare because they believe access to basic needs should not depend on income.
   
3. Althusser’s definition of ideology is that it shapes how individuals see themselves and their place in society. He argues that ideology makes people feel like they are freely choosing their actions, even though those choices are shaped by social systems and institutions. Instead of using force, ideology encourages people to accept the system as normal. For example, school teaches students to follow rules, respect authority, and accept certain social roles. It shapes how people behave and what they expect from society without relying on direct force.