1. Citizens role differ depending on the system of governance operating in the nation. The different systems include federal, confederation and unitary systems. In a federal system, the governance and power is distributed on the federal and state level. Citizens can engage in a federal system by voting for their preferred President, members of Congress, on a federal level and also vote for mayors, state legislators, governors, city councils on a state and local level. This way citizens can elect members who will represent their choices and advocate for policies that they prefer. In a confederation system, individual states and local governments have maximum power reserved to them whereas the central federal government has limited control. Citizens have role to play in influencing local policies and laws which also implies that the legislations among states will differ significantly. Under a unitary system, the national government possesses most of or all of the power, and the local governments exist essentially as administrative extensions. The citizens mostly have contact with the national government since most of the decisions are made there and they just instruct the local governments. Local governments have not much autonomy and implement things on instruction by the national government. France and United Kingdom are examples of the unitary systems where local government powers are subordinated to the central government.

2. The division of power implies how power, control and authority is divided among the various levels of governance. In a federal system power is distributed among the national government and state or regional sectors. Each level has control over certain factors and responsibilities. The Constitution can outline the powers of the different levels. For instance, in the US, the federal government has control of printing of notes, taxation policies, national security etc. Whereas, the state government has control over enforcing environmental legislations, education, local law enforcement. In a confederation, regional or state governments possess the bulk of the powers, with the central government remaining weak. The central government takes action only if the states wish to relinquish some powers. The initial setup of the United States under the Articles of Confederation is an instance where there were limited powers for the national government, with states having great autonomy. In a Unitary system, most of the power is reserved to the central Government and the local governments have lesser or no independent power. Countries like United Kingdom and France operate on the unitary system.

3. The U.S. federal government intervened extensively in New York State’s efforts during the COVID-19 pandemic through economic support, public health policies, and emergency aid. The federal government provided funding in the form of relief packages like the CARES Act and the American Rescue Plan. The funding helped with unemployed locals, stimulus payments, and assistance to state and local governments. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) also covered temporary hospitals and emergency supplies. Public Health Guidelines: National government set up health guidelines through the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), which were followed by New York through placing restrictions on companies, public events, and wearing masks in some locations. New York sometimes went beyond national guidelines with more strict lockdowns and vaccination mandates. Cooperation and The federal government assisted in facilitating coordination among states. New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut formed a regional compact to implement standardized travel bans and quarantine policies for people arriving from high-risk states. Federal agencies like the National Guard assisted in creating mass-vaccination sites, such as the Javits Center in New York City, and distributing vital supplies. The pandemic underscored the way the federal government impacts state and local government action in terms of funding assistance, policy guidelines, and coordination to properly respond to national crises.

1. In a federal system, the power is shared amongst central and regional governments; states or provinces. Voting for representatives at local, state, and national levels are left for citizens to participate in and influence laws and policies that affect their communities. In a confederation, the central government possesses little power, while individual states or provinces maintain the greater amount of authority. The central government will step in to address matters outside of their scope of authority, when delegated. On the other hand, in a unitary system the national government maintains total authority. They provide local and regional governments with authorities. People have to work with their local governments which operate under the practices of the central (national) government.
2. The division of power is a set of principles that distributes governmental authority to specific branches of government. The legislative branch consists of the house of representatives and the senate. This branch is responsible for making laws. They can also have the power to impeach federal officials, d can override vetoes with ⅔ votes and approve federal judges to be appointed. The next is the executive branch that has the president, president’s cabinet, and vice president. This branch is responsible for enforcing laws. They can veto bills, issue pardons, and appoint federal judges. Lastly, is the judicial branch. This branch composes the supreme court and supreme court justices. This branch is responsible for interpreting laws. This branch can also declare acts of the president unconstitutional and can declare laws from the legislative branch unconstitutional.
3. The federal government greatly impacted New York states’ call to action for the COVID-19 pandemic. They assisted with funding, safety protocols and guidelines, and emergency powers from the executive branch. New York abided by the CDC’s health recommendations; like lockdowns or [quarantines], mandating masks, social distancing, and business traffic and hours of operation restrictions. The CARES Act gave financial relief for hospitals, unemployment insurance, and economic aid. Governor Andrew Cuomo was influential in executing said federal recommendations at the state level (within his authority) and brought forth strict measures, such as early lockdowns and quarantine protocols. He also looked for additional resources from the federal government, including the National Guard deployment and medical supplies. Cuomo’s leadership and partnership with federal agencies were crucial in influencing New York’s response to the covid-19 pandemic.

1. Differences in the Role of Citizens in Government

• Federal System: In a federal system, citizens have a say in government at multiple levels such as national, state, and local. Each level has its own powers, and citizens can vote for leaders at all these levels.

• Confederation System: In a confederation, the central government has little power, and the states or regions hold most of the control. Citizens are more involved in local or state governments, and the central government has limited influence over them.

• Unitary System: In a unitary system, the central government holds most of the power, and local governments have very limited authority. Citizens usually participate in local elections, but the national government has the final say.

2. The division of power is how the authority is shared between different levels of government, like national and state governments. In a federal system, powers are clearly divided—some are for the national government, and others are for the states. In a unitary system, most of the power is held by the national government, while in a confederation, the states have most of the power, and the central government has very little authority.

3. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the federal government affected New York State and its local governments in many ways. For example:

Financial Help: The federal government gave money to New York through programs like the CARES Act to help with healthcare costs, unemployment, and supporting businesses.

Health Guidelines: The CDC gave advice on things like social distancing and mask-wearing, which influenced how New York handled the pandemic, including when to reopen businesses or schools.

Mandates: The federal government also helped with vaccine distribution and sent the National Guard to help, which guided how New York carried out its own plans for vaccinations and public health efforts.

So, while New York had control over local decisions, the federal government provided resources and guidance that shaped how things were done in the state and local areas.

​The roles of citizens in government vary across federal, confederation, and unitary systems:​

• Federal Systems: Citizens elect representatives at multiple levels allowing for participation in various layers of governance.​
• Confederation Systems: Citizens primarily engage with local or regional governments, as these entities hold the majority of power, with a weaker central authority.​
• Unitary Systems: Citizens interact mainly with a strong central government, with limited influence over local governance, as local authorities operate under central control.​

The division of power refers to how governmental authority is allocated among different levels—central, regional, and local. In a federal system, this division is constitutionally defined, ensuring that each level has specific responsibilities and autonomy. This structure prevents the over-centralization of power and allows for regional diversity in policy implementation.​

During the COVID-19 pandemic, the federal government significantly influenced the actions of New York State and its local governments through financial support and policy guidance:​

• Financial Assistance: The federal government provided funding to support New York’s response to the pandemic. This included aid to hospitals, businesses, and individuals, which was crucial in managing public health measures and economic challenges. ​
• Policy Guidance: Federal agencies issued social distancing and vaccination protocols, which New York adapted to its specific context. This collaboration ensured a coordinated effort in combating the virus.​

In summary, the federal government’s role during the pandemic exemplified the interplay between national support and state implementation, showcasing the strengths and challenges of a federal system in crisis management.

1.In a federal system, citizens have a say in both national and state governments. Power is shared, so people vote for leaders at different levels like the president and Congress at the national level, and governors or mayors locally. In a confederation, the power is mostly with smaller, local governments or states, and the national government is weak. Citizens are more connected to their state leaders. In a unitary system, the national government has most of the power. Citizens mainly focus on voting for leaders at the national level, and local governments follow the rules made by the central government.

2.The division of power is basically how the government splits responsibilities between different levels, like national and state governments. Each one has its own jobs. For example, the national government deals with things like the military or printing money, while state governments handle things like schools and local police. This division helps keep one part of the government from becoming too powerful.

3.During COVID-19, the federal government made rules and gave money to the states to help them respond. In New York, the federal government sent funding for hospitals, testing, and vaccines. They also set guidelines for things like mask-wearing and travel restrictions. Even though New York made its own decisions on things like lockdowns and school closures, they followed a lot of what the federal government recommended because they needed the resources and support.

Citizens’ roles in government vary across different systems, such as federal, confederation, and unitary. In a federal system, citizens engage with the government at multiple levels—national, state, and local—giving them a broad range of influence. They can vote on various issues at different levels, which allows for more direct involvement in decisions. In a confederation, power is primarily with regional governments, and citizens typically interact with their state or regional leaders more than the central government. The central government has limited authority, so local governments hold more power in decision-making. In a unitary system, decision-making is concentrated at the national level, and local governments have less control. Citizens primarily engage with the national government, as the local governments simply follow its direction.

The division of power refers to how authority is distributed among different levels of government. In federal systems, for example, power is shared between the national government and state or local governments, with each level having its own set of responsibilities. This structure ensures that no single branch or level of government becomes too powerful. Each branch, such as the executive, legislative, and judicial, checks and balances the others, so power is more evenly distributed and monitored.

The federal government shapes the actions of state and local governments mainly through financial leverage and legal requirements. During the COVID-19 pandemic, for example, the federal government strongly influenced New York’s response. The federal government set guidelines on travel restrictions, social distancing, and healthcare mandates, which states had to follow to receive federal funding. For New York, this meant implementing specific public health measures, including restrictions on large gatherings and the closure of certain businesses.

Additionally, the federal government played a role in managing the crisis through financial support. It provided aid to individuals who lost their jobs, businesses that were struggling, and hospitals facing increased demand. This funding often came with conditions, requiring states and local governments to adhere to federal guidelines. On the legal side, federal courts, including the Supreme Court, reviewed state decisions. For example, some of New York’s restrictions, such as limits on religious gatherings, were challenged in court, and federal courts intervened, showing the limits of state autonomy in times of national crises.

The federal government’s actions during the pandemic demonstrated how it can influence state and local governance through both policy mandates and funding. This interaction highlights the balance of power between the federal government and states, especially in handling public health emergencies.

The involvement of citizens in government can change a lot based on whether a country uses a federal, confederation, or unitary system. This is mainly because of how power is divided among different levels of government. In a federal system, like in the United States, Canada, or Germany, power is shared between a national government and regional governments, such as states or provinces. Citizens have the chance to participate in government at various levels. They can vote in national elections for leaders like the president or members of Congress, as well as in state elections for governors and state lawmakers. Additionally, they can take part in local elections for mayors and city councils. Sometimes, citizens even get to vote directly on specific policies through referenda. This system allows people to push for different policies at different levels of government. On the other hand, a confederation is a loose group of independent states that give limited power to a weaker central authority. Examples from history include the Articles of Confederation in the early United States and the European Union. In a confederation, citizens mainly interact with their state or regional governments since the central government has very little power. The national government doesn’t directly control individuals; it operates through the states. This means that citizens might have different rights and responsibilities based on their state’s laws, as there isn’t always a consistent policy across the board. In modern confederations like the European Union, citizens can vote for their national governments and also for representatives in a limited central government, like the European Parliament. In a unitary system, the central government has most or all of the governing power, while local governments mainly serve as administrative branches. This means that local governments don’t have much independence and follow the rules set by the central authority.

The division of power is about how authority is shared among different levels of government. This idea is really important for how a country is run because it helps make sure that no one group has all the power. In a federal system, for example, power is split between the national government and state governments, each having their own specific jobs. The national government handles things like defense and foreign affairs, while states take care of education and local laws. They also share some responsibilities, like taxation and law enforcement. In the U.S., states manage their own education systems, but the federal government supports them with funding and guidelines. On the other hand, in a confederation, the states keep most of the power, and the central government has very little authority, often relying on the states to work together on issues like trade. An example of this is the Articles of Confederation, where the federal government couldn’t collect taxes or enforce laws. In a unitary system, the central government has all the power and can give some authority to local governments, but it can take it back whenever it wants. For instance, in France, the national government controls major areas like education and healthcare, while local governments handle smaller tasks. The main goal of dividing power in federal and confederation systems is to stop any one group from becoming too powerful, while unitary systems focus more on keeping the country united and running smoothly.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, the U.S. federal government significantly influenced New York State’s response, primarily through financial support. Relief packages like the CARES Act and the American Rescue Plan provided funds for stimulus checks, unemployment benefits, and aid to state and local governments. FEMA also helped cover costs for emergency supplies and temporary hospitals, enabling New York to support healthcare, distribute vaccines, and assist unemployed residents.The federal government set health guidelines that New York initially followed closely, enforcing strict mask and business restrictions. However, New York leaders, including Governor Andrew Cuomo, sometimes implemented even stricter measures, such as early business shutdowns and vaccination mandates for certain workers. The state collaborated with federal agencies to establish large vaccination sites. Additionally, the National Guard was deployed to assist in distributing food and medical supplies and managing testing and vaccination sites, including the Javits Center. This federal support was crucial for New York in navigating the pandemic’s challenges.The federal government played a big role in how New York handled travel and quarantine rules between states. In the summer of 2020, New York teamed up with New Jersey and Connecticut to set up quarantine rules for people coming from states that had a high risk of spreading the virus, following the advice from the federal government. The federal leaders wanted the states to cooperate and create consistent rules instead of having different policies all over the place.

1. Describe the primary differences in the role of citizens in government, among the federal, confederation, and unitary systems.
2. Briefly explain how you understand the system of division of power.
3. How does the federal government shape the actions of state and local governments? Write your answer based on doing a bit of research on how the federal government has influenced the actions of NY state and local governments, during the COVID-19 pandemic.