1. How people get to be involved in their government changes a lot depending on the type of system it is: federal, confederation, or unitary. In a federal system, people deal with both the main government and their local state or area, voting for leaders and affecting rules at different levels. In a confederation, people mostly work with their local governments, which have a lot of power, while the main government doesn’t do much. But in a unitary system, people mainly deal with the main government, which has all the power and makes all the big decisions, so local governments don’t have much say. So, how much people get to be involved really depends on how the power is shared in each system.
2. Dividing power means splitting government jobs between different levels, like national and local. This affects how laws are made and who takes care of things like schools and roads. Some countries split power clearly in their rules, while others keep most power in one place. Knowing how a country divides power helps you understand how it runs. This setup affects how money and help are spread around, keeping one group from getting too strong.
3. During Covid-19, the federal government greatly influenced New York State and local governments through money, rules, and advice. The federal government gave billions to New York through the CARES Act, helping them pay for healthcare, jobless benefits, and aid to people and businesses. Without this money, New York would have had trouble keeping important services running. Also, the federal government set rules and gave advice on masks, distancing, and vaccines through agencies like the CDC. New York followed these guidelines to protect people’s health. The federal government also helped get vaccines and supplies to New York.

1.
Under a federal system (like in the U.S.), individuals have duties at multiple levels—local, state, and national—because power is shared. Under a confederation, the majority of power is in the hands of the states, so individuals largely deal with their state governments. Under a unitary system, the majority of power is in the national government, and individuals largely deal with national-level issues, with minimal local inputs.

2.
Separation of power is meant to divide power among various levels of government—chiefly the state and federal governments. Both have their areas of specialization: for example, the federal government handles national defense and immigration, while states handle education and local law enforcement. This is meant to see to it that one level of government does not overpower any other level.

3.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, the federal government influenced New York on both the funding and directive fronts. It gave New York billions of dollars in funding through packages like the CARES Act and American Rescue Plan that financed hospitals, unemployment benefits, and vaccine distribution. The CDC also issued national directives (like mask mandates and phases for reopening), which New York copied or adapted into its state policies. Federal control was also linked to money—if the state did not follow certain guidelines, it might lose funding.

1.Describe the primary differences in the role of citizens in government, among the federal, confederation, and unitary systems.

-Given that local governments are in charge and are located closer to the people, citizens in a confederation system have the most power. When central and regional governments combine power in a federal system, citizens participate on several levels, primarily through representative voting. Whenever choices are decided primarily in a unitary system, the central government has the most power and the people have the least direct influence. As a result, confederations have the highest levels of citizen involvement, federations have moderate levels, and unitary systems have the lowest levels.

2. Briefly explain how you understand the system of division of power.

-A structure known as the division of powers, or split of powers, divides the duties of the government among the legislative, executive, and judicial departments. The unique powers and functions of each branch keep any one branch from rising too strong. Each branch is able to regulate the others over this arrangement, which secures a balance of power. The purpose is to ensure effective leadership while defending individual rights. The U.S. Constitution and many state constitutions are based on this foundation.

3.How does the federal government shape the actions of state and local governments? Write your answer based on doing a bit of research on how the federal government has influenced the actions of NY state and local governments, during the COVID-19 pandemic.

-The US government uses financing, laws, and guidelines to influence state and local policies. Under programs like the American Rescue Plan, it gave New York financial support during COVID-19, allowing regional governments to focus on both economic and public health issues. New York altered federal agencies’ rules on health figures to fit its own situation. Furthermore, the federal government developed general public health policies and oversaw vaccination distribution, affecting state and local performance. Therefore, the framework that New York and its communities functioned under throughout the pandemic was built by federal activities.

1) Describe the primary differences in the role of citizens in government among the federal, confederation, and unitary systems.
In a federal system, such as that of the United States, citizens have dual roles,they vote for representatives at both the national and state levels, allowing them to influence government policy across multiple layers. In a confederation, power is mostly held by individual states or regions, and the central government has very limited authority, so citizens engage primarily with local or state governments. A unitary system is centralized, meaning all significant decision making power lies with the national government; citizens participate mainly by voting for national leaders, with less direct influence over regional decisions. These systems differ in how power is distributed, and thus how much influence citizens have at various levels of governance.

2) Briefly explain how you understand the system of division of power.
The division of power refers to how responsibilities and authority are separated between different levels of government federal, state, and local. In the U.S., the Constitution assigns specific powers to the federal government (like declaring war or printing money), while others are reserved for states (like education and public safety). Some powers are shared, such as taxation and law enforcement. This system is designed to prevent any one level from having too much control and to ensure that governance is more responsive to local needs.

3) How does the federal government shape the actions of state and local governments? Write your answer based on doing a bit of research on how the federal government has influenced the actions of NY state and local governments during the COVID-19 pandemic.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, the federal government influenced New York State’s actions in several key ways. For instance, the federal government provided funding through stimulus packages like the CARES Act, which helped New York support hospitals, small businesses, and unemployed workers. The CDC and other federal agencies issued guidelines for safety measures like mask mandates and social distancing, which shaped how New York created and adjusted its public health rules. Additionally, the federal government coordinated vaccine distribution, which New York relied on to plan its vaccine rollout strategy. Through financial support and public health policy, the federal government played a central role in guiding the state’s response to the crisis.

1. Citizens role differ depending on the system of governance operating in the nation. The different systems include federal, confederation and unitary systems. In a federal system, the governance and power is distributed on the federal and state level. Citizens can engage in a federal system by voting for their preferred President, members of Congress, on a federal level and also vote for mayors, state legislators, governors, city councils on a state and local level. This way citizens can elect members who will represent their choices and advocate for policies that they prefer. In a confederation system, individual states and local governments have maximum power reserved to them whereas the central federal government has limited control. Citizens have role to play in influencing local policies and laws which also implies that the legislations among states will differ significantly. Under a unitary system, the national government possesses most of or all of the power, and the local governments exist essentially as administrative extensions. The citizens mostly have contact with the national government since most of the decisions are made there and they just instruct the local governments. Local governments have not much autonomy and implement things on instruction by the national government. France and United Kingdom are examples of the unitary systems where local government powers are subordinated to the central government.

2. The division of power implies how power, control and authority is divided among the various levels of governance. In a federal system power is distributed among the national government and state or regional sectors. Each level has control over certain factors and responsibilities. The Constitution can outline the powers of the different levels. For instance, in the US, the federal government has control of printing of notes, taxation policies, national security etc. Whereas, the state government has control over enforcing environmental legislations, education, local law enforcement. In a confederation, regional or state governments possess the bulk of the powers, with the central government remaining weak. The central government takes action only if the states wish to relinquish some powers. The initial setup of the United States under the Articles of Confederation is an instance where there were limited powers for the national government, with states having great autonomy. In a Unitary system, most of the power is reserved to the central Government and the local governments have lesser or no independent power. Countries like United Kingdom and France operate on the unitary system.

3. The U.S. federal government intervened extensively in New York State’s efforts during the COVID-19 pandemic through economic support, public health policies, and emergency aid. The federal government provided funding in the form of relief packages like the CARES Act and the American Rescue Plan. The funding helped with unemployed locals, stimulus payments, and assistance to state and local governments. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) also covered temporary hospitals and emergency supplies. Public Health Guidelines: National government set up health guidelines through the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), which were followed by New York through placing restrictions on companies, public events, and wearing masks in some locations. New York sometimes went beyond national guidelines with more strict lockdowns and vaccination mandates. Cooperation and The federal government assisted in facilitating coordination among states. New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut formed a regional compact to implement standardized travel bans and quarantine policies for people arriving from high-risk states. Federal agencies like the National Guard assisted in creating mass-vaccination sites, such as the Javits Center in New York City, and distributing vital supplies. The pandemic underscored the way the federal government impacts state and local government action in terms of funding assistance, policy guidelines, and coordination to properly respond to national crises.

1. In a federal system, the power is shared amongst central and regional governments; states or provinces. Voting for representatives at local, state, and national levels are left for citizens to participate in and influence laws and policies that affect their communities. In a confederation, the central government possesses little power, while individual states or provinces maintain the greater amount of authority. The central government will step in to address matters outside of their scope of authority, when delegated. On the other hand, in a unitary system the national government maintains total authority. They provide local and regional governments with authorities. People have to work with their local governments which operate under the practices of the central (national) government.
2. The division of power is a set of principles that distributes governmental authority to specific branches of government. The legislative branch consists of the house of representatives and the senate. This branch is responsible for making laws. They can also have the power to impeach federal officials, d can override vetoes with ⅔ votes and approve federal judges to be appointed. The next is the executive branch that has the president, president’s cabinet, and vice president. This branch is responsible for enforcing laws. They can veto bills, issue pardons, and appoint federal judges. Lastly, is the judicial branch. This branch composes the supreme court and supreme court justices. This branch is responsible for interpreting laws. This branch can also declare acts of the president unconstitutional and can declare laws from the legislative branch unconstitutional.
3. The federal government greatly impacted New York states’ call to action for the COVID-19 pandemic. They assisted with funding, safety protocols and guidelines, and emergency powers from the executive branch. New York abided by the CDC’s health recommendations; like lockdowns or [quarantines], mandating masks, social distancing, and business traffic and hours of operation restrictions. The CARES Act gave financial relief for hospitals, unemployment insurance, and economic aid. Governor Andrew Cuomo was influential in executing said federal recommendations at the state level (within his authority) and brought forth strict measures, such as early lockdowns and quarantine protocols. He also looked for additional resources from the federal government, including the National Guard deployment and medical supplies. Cuomo’s leadership and partnership with federal agencies were crucial in influencing New York’s response to the covid-19 pandemic.

1. Differences in the Role of Citizens in Government

• Federal System: In a federal system, citizens have a say in government at multiple levels such as national, state, and local. Each level has its own powers, and citizens can vote for leaders at all these levels.

• Confederation System: In a confederation, the central government has little power, and the states or regions hold most of the control. Citizens are more involved in local or state governments, and the central government has limited influence over them.

• Unitary System: In a unitary system, the central government holds most of the power, and local governments have very limited authority. Citizens usually participate in local elections, but the national government has the final say.

2. The division of power is how the authority is shared between different levels of government, like national and state governments. In a federal system, powers are clearly divided—some are for the national government, and others are for the states. In a unitary system, most of the power is held by the national government, while in a confederation, the states have most of the power, and the central government has very little authority.

3. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the federal government affected New York State and its local governments in many ways. For example:

Financial Help: The federal government gave money to New York through programs like the CARES Act to help with healthcare costs, unemployment, and supporting businesses.

Health Guidelines: The CDC gave advice on things like social distancing and mask-wearing, which influenced how New York handled the pandemic, including when to reopen businesses or schools.

Mandates: The federal government also helped with vaccine distribution and sent the National Guard to help, which guided how New York carried out its own plans for vaccinations and public health efforts.

So, while New York had control over local decisions, the federal government provided resources and guidance that shaped how things were done in the state and local areas.

​The roles of citizens in government vary across federal, confederation, and unitary systems:​

• Federal Systems: Citizens elect representatives at multiple levels allowing for participation in various layers of governance.​
• Confederation Systems: Citizens primarily engage with local or regional governments, as these entities hold the majority of power, with a weaker central authority.​
• Unitary Systems: Citizens interact mainly with a strong central government, with limited influence over local governance, as local authorities operate under central control.​

The division of power refers to how governmental authority is allocated among different levels—central, regional, and local. In a federal system, this division is constitutionally defined, ensuring that each level has specific responsibilities and autonomy. This structure prevents the over-centralization of power and allows for regional diversity in policy implementation.​

During the COVID-19 pandemic, the federal government significantly influenced the actions of New York State and its local governments through financial support and policy guidance:​

• Financial Assistance: The federal government provided funding to support New York’s response to the pandemic. This included aid to hospitals, businesses, and individuals, which was crucial in managing public health measures and economic challenges. ​
• Policy Guidance: Federal agencies issued social distancing and vaccination protocols, which New York adapted to its specific context. This collaboration ensured a coordinated effort in combating the virus.​

In summary, the federal government’s role during the pandemic exemplified the interplay between national support and state implementation, showcasing the strengths and challenges of a federal system in crisis management.

1.In a federal system, citizens have a say in both national and state governments. Power is shared, so people vote for leaders at different levels like the president and Congress at the national level, and governors or mayors locally. In a confederation, the power is mostly with smaller, local governments or states, and the national government is weak. Citizens are more connected to their state leaders. In a unitary system, the national government has most of the power. Citizens mainly focus on voting for leaders at the national level, and local governments follow the rules made by the central government.

2.The division of power is basically how the government splits responsibilities between different levels, like national and state governments. Each one has its own jobs. For example, the national government deals with things like the military or printing money, while state governments handle things like schools and local police. This division helps keep one part of the government from becoming too powerful.

3.During COVID-19, the federal government made rules and gave money to the states to help them respond. In New York, the federal government sent funding for hospitals, testing, and vaccines. They also set guidelines for things like mask-wearing and travel restrictions. Even though New York made its own decisions on things like lockdowns and school closures, they followed a lot of what the federal government recommended because they needed the resources and support.

Citizens’ roles in government vary across different systems, such as federal, confederation, and unitary. In a federal system, citizens engage with the government at multiple levels—national, state, and local—giving them a broad range of influence. They can vote on various issues at different levels, which allows for more direct involvement in decisions. In a confederation, power is primarily with regional governments, and citizens typically interact with their state or regional leaders more than the central government. The central government has limited authority, so local governments hold more power in decision-making. In a unitary system, decision-making is concentrated at the national level, and local governments have less control. Citizens primarily engage with the national government, as the local governments simply follow its direction.

The division of power refers to how authority is distributed among different levels of government. In federal systems, for example, power is shared between the national government and state or local governments, with each level having its own set of responsibilities. This structure ensures that no single branch or level of government becomes too powerful. Each branch, such as the executive, legislative, and judicial, checks and balances the others, so power is more evenly distributed and monitored.

The federal government shapes the actions of state and local governments mainly through financial leverage and legal requirements. During the COVID-19 pandemic, for example, the federal government strongly influenced New York’s response. The federal government set guidelines on travel restrictions, social distancing, and healthcare mandates, which states had to follow to receive federal funding. For New York, this meant implementing specific public health measures, including restrictions on large gatherings and the closure of certain businesses.

Additionally, the federal government played a role in managing the crisis through financial support. It provided aid to individuals who lost their jobs, businesses that were struggling, and hospitals facing increased demand. This funding often came with conditions, requiring states and local governments to adhere to federal guidelines. On the legal side, federal courts, including the Supreme Court, reviewed state decisions. For example, some of New York’s restrictions, such as limits on religious gatherings, were challenged in court, and federal courts intervened, showing the limits of state autonomy in times of national crises.

The federal government’s actions during the pandemic demonstrated how it can influence state and local governance through both policy mandates and funding. This interaction highlights the balance of power between the federal government and states, especially in handling public health emergencies.