1. The creation of any product requires two things: labor and the means of production. Labor is the act of production; the physical and mental work of turning one thing (or things) into another. A baker’s labor is the act of transforming flour and water into bread. The means of production are the resources and tools needed to engage in that labor. For the baker, the means of production include the flour and water, as well as the kitchen, tools, and oven used in the process of baking bread.
   
2. Value, as defined by Marx and presented by Abigail Thorn of Philosophy Tube, is the amount of work (labor) required to create a product under normal conditions. This includes the value of the constituent parts used in the production, such as the farming and milling of flour that the baker will use to make bread. This is not the same as “price” which will be affected by supply and demand and abstract market forces.
   
3. Value is defined by the amount of labor used in the creation of a product under typical circumstances, as measured in units of time. This is measurement requires an understanding of what “typical circumstances” should be, as artificially inflating the amount of time spent laboring does not increase the product’s value, nor does completing the work in above average time. Creating a more efficient standard of labor, however, will affect the value of a product. Implementing a production line is one example of increasing efficiency in a way that decreases value.
   
4. Labor is the act of production; creating products valued by society. Labor power is one’s capacity to labor, or the amount of labor one is capable of in a given period. An individual is generally capable of more labor than is strictly necessary to meet their essential needs. Capitalist production exploits this by covering the worker’s essential needs in exchange for the surplus value.
   
5. Surplus value is the value created in excess of what an individual needs to sustain themselves. If I as a worker generate enough value in half a day’s work to cover all my own expenses that day, the value I create in the second half of the day is a surplus value.
   
   In a capitalist system, this is the value the company/owner keeps for themselves after the expense of production. There is a natural and unavoidable tension in this, as the worker and owner will inevitably be at odds over the distribution of this value. The capitalist will want as great a return as possible on their investment, meaning they will want as great a portion of the overall value of a product as possible, and may leverage their capital to get it.
   
   To return to the baker once more, a baker may be able to meet their own daily needs by selling 10 loaves of bread. They may need to sell 10 additional loaves of bread to cover the expenses of production. Any bread sold in excess of that is almost entirely surplus value that the capitalist/owner may keep for themselves. If margins are thin or the owner is greedy, they may seek to increase the “surplus value” by arguing to diminish the worker’s share or cut production expenses.

2) The neighborhood that I live in is Bensonhurst. Most people living in this neighborhood are working class. I am not surprised by this because the article says that occupation is one of the things to determine social class. Bensonhurst is a diverse place and many people of different backgrounds work in retail, restaurants, and construction. Addtionally. the median household income, also used to determine social class, is around $70k. This puts the neighborhood in the lower middle class.

1. Reading 4.3 makes the distinction between owners and employees primarily by how they earn their living. Owners are the capitalist who make their money off the profits that are earned after all expenses have been paid such as supplies, utilities, and including employees. Owners live off the profits of their assets such as stocks, bonds, real estate, interests and such. An example would be a person who invests in the stock market for several years, probably decades, building up an amount of shares that now pay dividends which the investor can now live off. It is an investment philosophy that some investors have found success with over their working life, and now they can live not from wages but from the assets, stocks, they own. Contrast that with employees who primarily live off the wages they make. Whether those wages, are hourly or yearly wages. The employee is hired out for services but has no real stake in the wealth of the company, which is shared by investors. Employees include those in the middle class and even the upper middle class. Thus, an electrician who joins International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers is part of the working or employee class, some would say the working poor. As they continue along their apprenticeship they earn more and become part of the middle class and then the upper middle class. After doing working for decades and earning an above average salary and using a portion of their earning to invest in the stock market, in ETFs like SCHD, SCHG, VGT, SWPPX, VOO and even investing in individual companies like PLTR, KO, PFE, MSFT, and TMC, he could they could now live a comfortable life off the dividends making them part of the ownership class. This is an essential part of what makes America great.

2. Adam Smith, one of the founding theorists of capitalism, noted in 1776 that “labor … is alone the ultimate and real standard by which the value of all commodities can at all times and places be estimated and compared. It is their real price; money is their nominal price only.” In this statement Smith is exposing the belief that an item like a chair, table or any item has a true value that cannot be truly captured by the relatively small or nonmail price that comes with money. When a skilled laborer makes a chair, it has its own intrinsic value. When the chair was raw metal, it had no real use but the skilled laborer made the metal usable by creating a chair that people could use to sit in or stand on to retrieve something high up; maybe use it to sleep in more comfortably than the floor; or use it as a weapon for self-defense. Those are just some of the uses for the chair that was only possible be of the work of the laborer. However, I think some miss the point that the nominal price paid for the which will pay the employees and for supplies is what creates usable wealth for the owner and the employees. We do not live in a system of barter rather we live in system with a stable point of exchange- money. Money is paid at an agreed price between seller and buyer. Depending on the point of exchange wealth is created or destroyed and because of this system with the freedoms of the markets with some guardrails we have created opportunities for more people than ever has been created before in a nation.

3. In the article “Class Rules Everything Around Me” the socialist perspective on class does not permit it to be classified as an identity. The author compares the way liberals define class to how socialist define class. Liberals view class much like a ladder with different rungs and that moving up the ladder is indicative of higher social standing and comes with privileges. Therefore, thought there is racism and sexism they can be equated with the working class or the middle class or the upper middle class. Socialist however, hold a view of society as having a stratum of capitalist and workers or laborers. In this world view capitalist control or own the means of production and the workers trade time and services for pay to the capitalist. The capitalist then sells the goods or services to the boarder public whether that be the government or the private sector. Whether you are a man or woman or black or white you are a worker or a capitalist. The author gives the example that being white does not depend on how others treat you or on actions you take. Your race is non dependable variable. Rather, in the socialist view the capitalist is depended on workers and society, including the workers, are depended on those who control the means of production. The car companies are owned by shareholders large shareholders and smaller shareholders. The workers depend on the principal owners of the car companies to continue their employment. Also, the people in society also depend on the car companies to make cars that will help them to get to work, church, drop their kids off at school, or go see family. It is the interdependency that makes the socialist view of class as not quantifiable as an identity. The capitalist is necessary in the socialist viewpoint for society.

4. The statement “class structures are built around a close form of dependency” speaks to the socialist veiw that class structures are dependent on each other. The workers are dependent on the capitalist to create jobs. The capitalist are dependent on the workers to labor for them and create value. The workers can put pressure on the owning class or capitalist for better pay and working conditions. Society also depends on the capitalist class to make products that are needed for a functioning first world society. An example would be the defense companies in America. They play a pivotal role of helping to ensure the military readiness of the nation. The usefulness of the defense companies does not stop there. It continues on to assisting with foreign policy. Defense contractors are used to equip foreign nations that are allied with the interest of America.

1. Owners and employees are different because they get their money in different ways. Owner’s make money from the work of other people and from things they own, like businesses, stocks, or property. For example, a person who owns a company can make money from the work of the employees in that company. Employees, on the other hand, work for someone else and get paid a wage or salary. For example, a cashier works for a store and gets paid for the hours they work. The reading also explains that workers create the value of products and services through their labor, while owners receive the profits. So, the main difference is that employees work to earn wages, while owners can make money from what they own and from the work of other people.

2) The subway station closest to where I live is 36 St in Sunset Park, Brooklyn. I think the social class that is most common in my neighborhood is the working class and middle class. Sunset Park has people with different incomes, but many families are working and living in regular residential areas. According to Reading 4.1, income and education can affect how people see their social class. I think this is accurate for my neighborhood because I see many working families and people from different backgrounds.

1. How do you understand ideology?

I understand ideology is a set of beliefs and ideas that help shapes how people see the world and society. It can influence how we think about government, money, rights, and social issues. For example, two people can look at the same problem, such as poverty, but have different ideas about what causes it and how it should be solved because they have different ideologies.

Ideology can also be influenced by our family, school, community, religion, and the media. These things can shape our beliefs without us always realizing it. Overall, I see ideology as a way of understanding the world that affects the opinions and choices we make.

2. How do you understand the difference between conservative and liberal ideology in US politics?

The biggest difference between conservative and liberal ideology is their views about government, individual freedom, and equality. Conservatives generally believe in limited government, free markets, and individual responsibility. Liberals generally believe that government should play a larger role in helping solve social and economic problems. The reading also connects conservatives with private initiative and self-reliance, while liberals support things such as public services, wage supports, Social Security, and environmental protections.

For example, a liberal may support more government programs to help people who are struggling, while a conservative may believe people should rely more on themselves and the private sector. I think the main dividing line is how much of a role each side believes government should have in people’s lives and society.

3. How do you understand Althusser’s definition of ideology?

I understand Althusser’s definition of ideology as something that shapes how people see themselves and the world around them. Ideology is influenced by institutions such as schools, families, religion, and the media, which can teach people what is considered normal and how they are expected to behave.

For example, schools teach students subjects, but they also teach students to follow rules, be on time, and respect authority. This shows how ideology can influence our behavior and beliefs through everyday experiences, sometimes without us even realizing it

1. what is a repressive state apparatus? why does Officer call it repressive a repressive state apparatus?
   RSA is a part of the government that controls people mainly through force punishment or the threat of punishment. Examples include the police military courts, and prisons can use physical force to make people obey the rules of society.
2. what are ideological state apparatus how do they seem to work?
   Ideological state apparatus eyes are institutions that influence peoples beliefs, values and behavior. They usually work through ideas and beliefs rather than physical force. Examples include schools, churches families, the media, and political organizations.
3. how are the repressive and ideological state apparatus is different? 
   the main difference is how they control people. The repressive state apparatus mainly works through force and punishment while the ideological state apparatus mainly works through ideas, beliefs, and values.
4. post an example of ideology.
    example of ideology a beauty advertisement that shows that women need to be thin, attractive and young to be considered beautiful. This is an example of an ideological state apparatus because the media influences peoples beliefs about beauty and what is considered normal or desirable