The connection between whiteness and racism, as Ruth Gilmore suggests, lies in how whiteness has historically been used as a standard of power and privilege that defines who belongs and who does not. Whiteness often shapes who is seen as innocent, safe, or deserving, while those outside of it are more likely to be seen as threats or criminals. Gilmore argues that the prison system helps create criminals by targeting certain communities, especially poor and nonwhite people, for constant surveillance, arrest, and punishment. Even after serving time, people are marked as criminals, making it harder for them to find jobs or housing, which increases the chance they will be punished again. I think her view is powerful and makes sense, especially when we see how incarceration is often tied more to poverty and race than to actual danger. When Gilmore talks about liberation struggle, she means the ongoing fight for a society where everyone can live freely and fully, without being trapped by systems like prisons, racism, or poverty. It is about changing the structures that limit people’s futures and creating a world based on justice and care.

In a federal system, like the United States, citizens are governed by both national and state governments, each with its own authority and responsibilities but still under federal laws. In a confederation, the central government the power lies mostly with the states, so citizens are more directly connected to their state governments. In a unitary system, power is centralized in the national government, and local governments only carry out duties given to them. The division of power in a federal system is split by responsibilities that are shared between different levels of government, such as education, healthcare, and law enforcement. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the federal government supported New York State and local governments through funding, public health guidelines, and emergency declarations. For example, it provided financial aid to hospitals, schools, and small businesses, and issued national vaccine distribution plans that state and local agencies had to follow.

The concept of faction reminds me of social class, as both involve groups of people with shared interests that can be in conflict with one another. According to Federalist #10, James Madison believed that private property and wealth come from the natural differences in people’s faculties, meaning their talents, abilities, and intelligence. These differences, he argued, lead some people to acquire property while others do not, which creates economic inequality. Madison saw this inequality as unavoidable and believed the main mission of the US government was to protect property rights. This may surprise some people today, since we often hear that government’s job is to serve the people equally, not to prioritize wealth protection. Madison and other founders supported a republican government instead of a pure democracy because they feared that the majority, made up of the poor, could vote to take property from the wealthy. This shows how deeply the Constitution was shaped by the interests of the upper class.I think Madison’s explanation of wealth and poverty reflects the realities of his time but feels incomplete today because it overlooks how unfair systems and opportunities affect people’s ability to succeed. According to Federalist #10, the first object of the US government is to protect property rights, which may seem different from today’s idea that government should promote equality and provide for the welfare of all citizens. Given the social divisions discussed earlier, it is not surprising that Federalist #10 favors a republican form of government instead of pure democracy. Madison feared that in a pure democracy, the majority, especially the poorer classes, might use their power to take property from the wealthy, so a representative government was designed to control those passions and protect the interests of the propertied class.

According to the Readings, the Constitution was written by wealthy elites, such as landowners, merchants, and slaveholders, who wanted to protect their property and political power. This upper class included figures like James Madison and George Washington. In contrast, the working class, poor farmers, women, enslaved people, and Indigenous peoples were excluded from the process and had no voice in shaping the new government. The founders were afraid of democracy because they feared that if the lower classes gained too much power, they would vote for laws that threatened the wealth and status of the elite. While the class structure of early America was more openly unequal, with voting and power limited to cis white male property owners, many can argue that economic inequality and political influence still reflect similar divisions today, just in more passive or hidden forms.

In the Walmart v dukes  case, the Supreme Court ruled against a class action lawsuit brought by thousands of female employees who claimed gender discrimination in pay and work promotions. The Court ruled that the women lacked commonality. This term commonality signals that there was no defining common act of discrimination between all the employees. meaning they did not have enough in common to be treated as a single group under the law.. Without this shared issue, the case couldn’t move forward as a class action lawsuit.

The court system is better suited to protect individual rights because judges are independent and focus on interpreting the Constitution, rather than responding to political pressure in ways that elected officials would have had the obligation to. Although the Supreme Court is not democratic in the traditional sense, it was designed this way to prevent majority rule from violating the rights of the minorities.In Federalist 10, the founders wanted the courts to act as a check on the passions of the majority, even if that meant giving more power to the Supreme Court to ensure fair decisions were being made. While the courts may seem anti democratic because judges aren’t elected, this design helps protect individual rights from political pressure and majority rule.Their independence allows them to uphold the Constitution fairly without acting on the interest of a political party or powerful group.

1. I understand the establishment clause as the separation of the state and the church. The United States does not have an established religion and cannot promote any religion over the other. And in addition to that the government cannot promote or prohibit any religious beliefs. The lemon test is a criteria that helps determine if the government has violated the establishment clause.
2. The US flag is protected by the first amendment because it counts as symbolic speech which is a right in the constitution. Gregory Lee Johnson set fire to a US flag during a protest and was initially charged with desecration of a venerated object. however In 1989 in Texas v Johnson it was decided that burning the flag was a form of symbolic speech.
3. taking the fifth refers to taking the fifth amendment, in which you have the right to be silent to avoid incriminating your self.

“The top 1 percent is owned between 40 and 50 percent of the nation’s total wealth (stocks, bonds, investment funds, land, natural resources, business assets, and so on). more than the combined wealth of the bottom 90 percent”.

this evoked sensations of disgust and shock within me. it made a large impression on me because, to be able to identify as someone who’s status in society revolves around with-holding the am-massed wealth of more than an entire class of people is disheartening. its egregious how people have enough money to share and still have a very high socioeconomic status after distributing financial help, and still refuse to help eradicate homelessness and food insecurity, that is sinister. especially when the lower class works day in and out to continue to build the wealth they collect. its creates several issues many people face despite class but is prompted by class struggles. such as addiction, depression, unplanned pregnancy, prostitution, sexual violence, mental health issues, and high crime just to name a few. this dynamic has been severely disproportionate and becoming played out. through social media a tool where yes capitalistic regimes still run rampant, however slipping through the cracks is the flip side of this. where its own regime is turning against itself. how are you running platforms shoving advertisement after advertisement down peoples throats expecting them to buy when they aren’t making any money to purchase anything? creating a desire for things they struggle to materialize? this creates frustration and anger within people. from influencer hauls, to more economic awareness on situations like tariffs and inflation people are increasingly being shown they simply aren’t making enough money, and haven’t ever truly been in good economic standing. this has been pushing the lower class to demand more and more. the realization that hard work isn’t paying off for a lower class citizen has finally settled in and people are now finding ways to take some power back, wether through boycotts of places like target and amazon or spreading more economic based knowledge. the realization of how harmful this dynamic is has been increasing thanks to social media’s mass communication ability and due to the increasing disproportionality occurring in todays economy.