Ruth Wilson Gilmore argues that racial capitalism is not simply capitalism combining individual prejudice but a system in which racial hierarchies help organize economic and political power. When she says capitalism would stop racial capitalism when “all the white people disappear from the story”, she emphasizes that whiteness is not a biological category but a social and political system that has historical granted advantages to some groups while disadvantaging others. In this view, racism is connected to whiteness because whiteness has functioned as a form of privilege and access to resources, opportunities and power. I think Gilmore’s point is that racism is maintained not only through personal attitudes but also through institutions and social structures that continue to produce unequal outcomes.

According to Gilmore, the criminal Justice system can create and perpetuate the category of “criminals” by making it difficult for people to rejoin society after incarceration. Individuals who have been imprisoned often face barriers to employment, housing, voting rights,education and social acceptance. These challenges can push people into situations where they are likely to have further contact with the criminal Justice system. Rather than helping people rebuild their lives, the system may contribute to cycles of marginalization. I think Gilmore raises an important point because research has shown the social and economic barriers after release can make successful reintegration more difficult, people may disagree about how much responsibility belongs to the individual versus the system.

To my understanding Gilmore’s “liberation struggle” is the collective effort to create a more equitable society. Rather than focusing only punishment or reforming individual behavior, liberation struggle seeks to address the economic, social and political conditions that produce inequality and suffering. Gilmore argues that freedom requires building institutions and communities that support people’s needs and includes accessibility to education, healthcare, housing, employment and employment. Liberation struggles therefore, involves solidarity among different groups and working together to transform systems that create oppression. It is not simply about removing harmful institutions which create new conditions that allow people and communities to thrive.

The Supreme Court can be considered anti-democratic because it’s members are not elected by the people. Federal judges are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate and Supreme Court justices serve for life. Unlike members of Congress or Presidents, voters cannot directly remove them through election. The Founders designed the system this way on purpose. In The Federalist No.10, James Madison argued that pure democracy could become dangerous if temporary majorites acted out of passion or self interest. The framers feared “factions” and believed that government needed institutions to limit majority rule and protect properties, stability and minority rights.

This connects to the role of social class in the early American government. The Constitution was created by wealthy, educated elites who distracted direct democrats and many founders believed ordinary citizens could be too emotional or uninformed to make wise political decisions. This created institutions like the Senate, the Electoral College, The Supreme Court to place political power like in the hands of people who were insulated from popular pressure meaning upper-class and property owning groups had a stronger influence on the government. The Supreme Court acts to democracy it’s independence allows justices to make decisions based on the Constitution instead of public opinion or electoral pressures. Critics argue that it allows unelected judges to overrule the will of the people. The framers wanted balance between democracy and elite control believing that too much direct democracy could threaten stability.

Courts are often better to protect individual rights because judges are supposed to be independent from the public opinion and political pressure. Elected officials like Presidents, members of Congress, mayors or city council members which usually have to think about winning elections and satisfying the political parties and responds to majority opinion. Due to this they may ignore or violate the rights of minorities or unpopular groups to help them remain in power. Judges like federal judges do not have to run for reelection. Since long terms or life terms, they can make decisions based on the Constitution or law rather than public pressure. This independence allowed the courts to defend the rights of an individual. A perfect example is Brown v. Board of Education. Racial Segregation in schools were supported by many electoral officials by the public in southern states. Congress and state governments were slow to act because segregation was popular in politics. The Supreme Courts ruled segregation in public schools which was unconstitutional. It was unconstitutional due to the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The courts protected the rights of African American students even though politicians opposed of that decision which shows how courts still protect individuals pr minority groups when elected branches fail to.

The Supreme Court and federal court system can be described as anti-democratic because federal judges are not directly elected by the people. Supreme Court justices are appointed by the President and the Senate. This means judges can make important decisions even if most Americans disagree. However the reasoning for this system is that the framers of the Constitution wanted the courts to be independent from temporary public passions and majority rule. In the Federalist No.10 James Madison argued that pure democracy could be dangerous because majorities might abuse minorities or threaten property rights.

In her essay Patricia Williams argues that the “war on terror” is different from traditional wars because it does not involve a defined enemy, battlefield or ending point. Traditional wars are usually fought between nations with armies, borders and formal declarations of war. A war on terror, however targets terrorist groups, and individual.s who operate across many countries without uniform or a permanent location. Then the enemy would be harder to identify, governments have surveillance, detention and security powers in ways that affect ordinary citizens. Williams would suggest that this type of war blurs the line between wartime powers or day to day civil liberties which creates concerns about government overreach and constitutional rights.

The “Roving Wiretaps” provision of the USA Patriot act allows law enforcement to monitor multiple communication devices used by a suspect without getting a warrant for each device. Critics can argue that this possibly violates the Fourth Amendment, which protects people against unreasonable searches and seizures. This raises concern that Roving Wiretaps can be too broad and can accidentally collect information from innocent people who use the same devices or network. Some people can believe it threatens First Amendment freedoms because increased surveillance can discourage free speech or private association if people fear they are being watched.

“Sneak and Peek” warrants are a controversial part of the Patriot Act. These warrants allow law enforcement officers to search a person’s home or property without immediately notifying them that a search took place. Critics say this violates the Fourth Amendment because people traditionally have the right to know when the government searches through any property or knows what was taken. The delayed notifying may weaken protection against government abuse or reducing a person ability to challenge the search in court. Supporters argue that the tactic is necessary in terrorism or organized crime investigations but others feel it gives the government too much power secretly.

1. In a federal system, power is usually divided between a national government and smaller regional governments like states or provinces. Citizens participate in government at multiple levels. For example in the US, citizens often vote for local officials or state governors and national leaders like the president or members of congress. This can allow us people to influence the laws and policies to a certain degree unless some independent states make laws to fit the population. A confederation system means the central government is weak and must power remain with their individual state or region. Citizens usually connect to the national government and the national government on the states for authority or support. In a unitary system most power belongs to the central government. Local governments only have powers that the national government allows them to have. Citizens mainly influence politics through the national government because local governments have limited independence.
2. The system of division of power means that the government authority is shared among different levels or branches of government so that no single groups become too powerful. In the US, power is shared between federal,state and local governments. Power is divided among the legislative,executive and judicial branches. This structure helps protect democracy.
3. During COVID-19 pandemic the federal government strongly influenced the actions of New York state and local governments. The federal government provided large amounts of financial aid such as CARES act and the American Rescue Plan. These programs gave billions of dollars to New York State and local government hospitals, schools, businesses and unemployment programs. The federal government shaped the state and local actions through agencies like
4. During COVID-19 pandemic the federal government strongly influenced the actions of New York state and local governments. The federal government provided large amounts of financial aid such as CARES act and the American Rescue Plan. These programs gave billions of dollars to New York State and local government hospitals, schools, businesses and unemployment programs. The federal government shaped the state and local actions through agencies like CDC and FEMA. FEMA reimbursed New York for emergency expenses like testing sites, hospitals, vaccines and other protective equipment. New York became the first to receive major disaster to COVID-19 which made federal assistance available early on in the pandemic. Federal Public Health also influenced New York policies on masks,vaccinations, school closure and reopening plans.

A faction is a group of people united by a shared interest especially that can conflict with the rights of the good of the whole and others. Some groups that can connect to this are political groups, interest groups and even divisions like rich vs. poor. Madison is concerned with factions which drove by economic interest which can create instability and conflict. Madison can argue that wealth can come from diversity in the faculties of men”. Faculties meant like people’s differences due to the unfair systems. This idea can reflect how founders saw class as inevitable and rooted with human nature. I disagree because the structural factors like discrimination and unequal access to education and wealth. Overall both systemic factors and individual differences. Madison can say the first object of government is the protection of property and managing conflicts between economic groups. Madison’s focus was more on economics and stability especially for protecting owners of properties. Madison was wary for a pure democracy because in democracy majority rules. He also felt that the majority was more poorer people, he felt they could unite as a faction to redistribute wealth and threaten property rights of the wealthy. Madison would prefer a republic government because he can filter public opinion and leave it to elected officials and it can make it hard for people to dominate him.

The statistic that often leaves the biggest impression in discussion about U.S. wealth inequality is in the top 1% of the households own a lot more wealth than the entire 90%. The size of the gap is concentrated wealth among a tiny sliver of population. It can challenge the idea that wealth is a broad distribute in “middle class” society which can highlight how unequal resources are to all accessibility. Living in a world that has such large wealth inequalities it can limit economic mobility which help people lower income families get good quality education and healthcare. It can also lead to political inequality meaning wealthy individuals or corporations have influenced policies and decision making. As well as create a social division which can cause lack of trust and tension between social groups. We see dynamics like this all the time in schools the wealthier tend to get better funding or more opportunities while low income get less. Also housing luxury apartments go to wealthy people while public housing can be on the next block.