1) Ruth Gilmore connects “whiteness” and racism by explaining that whiteness has historically been linked to power, privilege, and advantage in society. Racism continues when systems mainly benefit certain groups while disadvantaging others.

2) Gilmore argues that the prison system can create more “criminals” because people who go to prison often struggle to find jobs, housing, and opportunities after release. This can push people back into crime and continue the cycle. I agree because many people are judged by their record even after serving their time.

3) I understand “liberation struggle” as people coming together to fight injustice and create equality. Gilmore believes liberation is about changing unfair systems and improving opportunities for communities that are being harmed or excluded.

1. What did the Supreme Court decide in the Wal-Mart case? And more importantly, how did it justify its decision? (HINT: the key word here is “commonality” (and how it related to “class-action lawsuit”). Try to understand what this legal term means, as it is key to the court’s decision).

The Supreme Court decided that the women could not continue the case as a class-action lawsuit against Walmart. The Court said there was not enough “commonality,” meaning the women did not all have the same experience of discrimination. For a class-action case, everyone in the group must share a common issue, but the Court felt that each woman’s situation was different depending on their store, manager, and location. Given that there was no clear company-wide policy proving discrimination, the Court said the case could not move forward as one large group.

1. In what ways is the court system better suited to protect the individual, than are the elected branches of government (such as Congress and the President; or the Mayor of NYC and the NYC City Assembly)? Give an example to illustrate your argument.

The court system is better at protecting individuals because judges don’t have to worry about elections or pleasing voters. They can focus on the Constitution and people’s rights instead of what the majority wants. Elected officials usually try to satisfy voters, which can sometimes ignore minority groups. Courts can step in and protect those individuals when their rights are violated.

For example, in Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court ended school segregation. Even though many elected officials supported segregation at the time, the Court protected the rights of Black students.

2.  Some people say the Supreme Court is anti-democratic because judges are not elected, they are appointed and serve for life. This means the public doesn’t directly choose them. But this is done so judges can stay independent and not make decisions based on politics. 

In Federalist #10, the founders worried that the majority could harm minority groups. By appointing judges, they can protect individual rights instead of following public opinion. It also reflects the idea that more educated elites would play a leading role in government and help keep decisions stable.

1. P. Williams writes in her essay, that the war on terror is a new type of a war. What’s new about it, how is it different from traditional wars?
   

The war on Terror Is different from normal wars because it does not involve specific nations with special armies. Instead, it focuses on terrorist organizations that tend to be harder to spot and can operate anywhere. It is different from standard wars, which usually have a fixed timeframe, due to the fact it lacks a clear conclusion. 

2. In what ways does the “Roving Wiretaps” of the Patriot Act seem to violate the Bill of Rights? Which amendment(s) does it seem to violate and why?

Using roving wiretaps, the government can keep an eye on a person’s discussions on multiple devices without obtaining a new warrant. The Fourth Amendment, which blocks people from random searches and protects their privacy, could be violated by this. This becomes an issue because it allows the government to track citizens more freely. 

3. What about “Sneak and Peek” Warrants?

Law enforcement can search someone’s property without having to notify them due to sneak and peek warrants. Considering that people have a right to know when they are being searched, this could also be a violation of the Fourth Amendment. When the person involved is not informed at the time, it creates questions about fairness and privacy.

1. Describe how you understand the “Establishment Clause” and the related “Lemon Test”.

The government is banned from welcoming or supporting any religion under the Establishment Clause. This keeps the government and religion separated. Courts use the Lemon Test to figure out if a law violates this by considering if it has nonreligious intent, does not support belief systems, nor does not involve the government in religion too much.

2. Is burning the US flag protected by the First Amendment? Explain by referring to the relevant court case discussed in the reading.

Yes, burning the American flag is considered to be a symbolic act under the First Amendment. The Supreme Court decided in Texas v. Johnson (1989) that a form of expression has rights even if it impacts some people. 

3. What does it mean when someone says, “I’m taking the Fifth”?

Taking the Fifth means using your Fifth Amendment right to stay silent so you don’t say anything that could be used against you in court.

1 .Describe the primary differences in the role of citizens in government among the federal, confederation, and unitary systems.

The distribution of power is one of the main differences between these  systems. In a system that’s unitary, towns and cities have little authority and the national government controls nearly all of the power. The US government and state governments share responsibility in a federal system. Voting along with interacting with both levels of government are ways in which citizens take part. 

2 Briefly explain how you understand the system of division of power.

Different levels of government divide authority under the division of responsibilities arrangement. The federal government and state governments split authority in the United States. States deal with local issues like public safety, and public schooling, while the federal government deals with national issues. 

3 How does the federal government shape the actions of state and local governments? (COVID-19 example in NY)

Through financing and national regulations, the federal government maintains having an effect on cities and states. The federal government provided financial assistance during COVID-19 through programs like the CARES Act and health guidance through the CDC. This changed how the state and local governments of New York managed the pandemic.

1. What concept that we have already discussed does “faction” remind
   you of?
   A faction reminds me of interest groups or political parties. It refers to a
   group of people who share similar interests or opinions and try to
   influence government decisions. These groups may form based on
   economic interests, beliefs, or social positions.
2. According to Federalist #10, what is the source of wealth (private
   property)? What explains why some people have wealth and others do
   not?
   In Federalist #10, Madison says wealth comes from the “diversity in the
   faculties of men.” Faculties mean people’s different abilities, talents, and
   skills. Because people have different abilities and opportunities, some
   gain more property and wealth than others. This difference leads to the
   creation of different social classes.
3. Do you agree with this explanation of wealth and poverty?
   I partly agree with Madison’s explanation because people do have
   different skills and abilities that can affect how much wealth they gain.
   However, wealth and poverty are also influenced by other factors such
   as education, opportunities, and social conditions. Because of this, I
   think there are many reasons why some people are wealthy while others
   are not.
4. What is the core mission (“first object”) of the US government? Does
   this surprise you?
   Madison says the first object of government is the protection of
   property. The government exists to protect the rights of people who own
   property and to prevent factions from threatening those rights. This can
   be surprising because today many people believe the government’s main
   role is to protect equality and support the general welfare of all citizens.
5. Why does Federalist #10 support a republican (representative)
   government instead of a pure democracy?
   Madison believed a pure democracy could allow the majority to control
   the minority, especially regarding property and wealth. Poorer citizens
   could form a majority faction and vote against wealthier citizens. A
   representative government helps control this by allowing elected
   officials to make decisions rather than direct majority rule.

Discussion board 6.1 

Readings 6.1 and 6.2 show that the wealthy people, including financiers, traders, and property owners, created the majority of the constitution. These men wanted the government to safeguard their money and economic interests. Given the fact that voting and political participation were restricted to white men who own land, most of the groups kept out of the process were women, enslaved people, small farmers, and members of the working class 

The class structure was somewhat similar to today because wealth still influences political power, although more people now have the right to vote. The framers feared democracy because they worried that the majority, especially poorer people, might threaten the wealth and property of the upper class.

1. The fact that a very small number of Americans own plenty of nation’s wealth was one detail that caught my attention. This was unexpected since it shows the unequal sharing of wealth and resources throughout society. It got me to thinking about how, despite the fact that many individuals put in a-lot of work, not everyone has equal access to opportunities and financial security.

2. Access to healthcare, education, housing, and general quality of life can all be impacted by living in a country with high income disparities. While those who are wealthier tend to have greater options, others could find it difficult to meet their basic needs or advance in their careers. I do observe this in my daily life, especially when comparing neighborhoods: some have more resources, safer housing, and better schools, while others have higher levels of financial stress and restricted access. Diversity of wealth can influence people’s everyday lives and opportunities in life.