1. Describe how you understand the “Establishment Clause” and the related ” and the related “Lemon Test”?

The Establishment Clause is the part of the First Amendment that prevents the government from creating, endorsing, or favoring any religion. This means that there is a conflict of interest for the government to participate in any official national religion, and the government can’t promote religious beliefs over others, or even over non-religion. Historically, many European countries had official state religions, leading to conflicts and even wars. The U.S. founders wanted to avoid this by keeping religion and government separate.

As the U.S. became more religiously diverse, courts had to interpret “no establishment of religion,” leading to the Lemon Test in the 1971 case Lemon v. Kurtzman. This test assesses whether a law or government action involving religion is constitutional.

For example, if a state wants to fund school supplies for private religious schools, that might be allowed since books and transportation serve a non-religious purpose. But if the state were to fund religious teachings or salaries for religious instructors, that could violate the Establishment Clause because it would create too much government involvement in religion.

2. Is burning the US flag protected by the First Amendment? Explain by referring to the relevant court case discussed in the reading:

The First Amendment protects people’s right to express themselves, even in ways that may upset or offend others. This includes symbolic speech, which means actions that express an idea, like burning the U.S. flag in protest. The Supreme Court made this clear in Texas v. Johnson (1989) when it ruled that burning the flag is a legal form of protest because it is a way for people to express their opinions about the government.

Although some have viewed this form of symbolic protest to be offensive, the government cannot punish someone just because others were emotionally upset by their message, as it would limit free speech. The First Amendment ensures that people can criticize the government in powerful ways without fear of being punished, as long as they are not harming others. However, while the First Amendment protects symbolic speech like “flag burning,” it does not protect speech that incites violence, makes threats, or causes direct harm to others. 

3. What does it mean when someone says “I’m taking the Fifth”?

When someone says, “I’m taking the Fifth,” they’re exercising their constitutional rights under the Fifth Amendment to remain silent and avoid saying anything that could get them in trouble with the law. This amendment protects people from being forced to confess or provide evidence that could be used against them in court. For Instance, if you’re asked a question, especially in a legal setting, and answering might make you look guilty of a crime, you can refuse to answer by “taking the Fifth.” This became widely known after the Supreme Court’s 1966 Miranda v. Arizona ruling, which made it a requirement for police to inform people of their rights before interrogation.

Citizens’ roles in government vary across different systems, such as federal, confederation, and unitary. In a federal system, citizens engage with the government at multiple levels—national, state, and local—giving them a broad range of influence. They can vote on various issues at different levels, which allows for more direct involvement in decisions. In a confederation, power is primarily with regional governments, and citizens typically interact with their state or regional leaders more than the central government. The central government has limited authority, so local governments hold more power in decision-making. In a unitary system, decision-making is concentrated at the national level, and local governments have less control. Citizens primarily engage with the national government, as the local governments simply follow its direction.

The division of power refers to how authority is distributed among different levels of government. In federal systems, for example, power is shared between the national government and state or local governments, with each level having its own set of responsibilities. This structure ensures that no single branch or level of government becomes too powerful. Each branch, such as the executive, legislative, and judicial, checks and balances the others, so power is more evenly distributed and monitored.

The federal government shapes the actions of state and local governments mainly through financial leverage and legal requirements. During the COVID-19 pandemic, for example, the federal government strongly influenced New York’s response. The federal government set guidelines on travel restrictions, social distancing, and healthcare mandates, which states had to follow to receive federal funding. For New York, this meant implementing specific public health measures, including restrictions on large gatherings and the closure of certain businesses.

Additionally, the federal government played a role in managing the crisis through financial support. It provided aid to individuals who lost their jobs, businesses that were struggling, and hospitals facing increased demand. This funding often came with conditions, requiring states and local governments to adhere to federal guidelines. On the legal side, federal courts, including the Supreme Court, reviewed state decisions. For example, some of New York’s restrictions, such as limits on religious gatherings, were challenged in court, and federal courts intervened, showing the limits of state autonomy in times of national crises.

The federal government’s actions during the pandemic demonstrated how it can influence state and local governance through both policy mandates and funding. This interaction highlights the balance of power between the federal government and states, especially in handling public health emergencies.

C-M-C: Small-Scale Commodity Production
This cycle represents the economic activity of small producers, such as artisans and farmers, who create goods (C: commodity) to sell (M: money) in order to buy something they need (C). The primary goal is use-value, meaning production is driven by necessity rather than profit. For example, a shoemaker crafts a pair of shoes (C), sells them for money (M), and then uses that money to purchase food and materials needed for daily life (C).

M-C-M’: The Capitalist Cycle
This cycle represents capitalism, where money (M) is used to buy commodities (C) to sell them for a greater amount of money (M’). Unlike small-scale production, which focuses on personal needs, the primary aim of this process is profit through surplus value. The difference between M’ (the increased money) and M (the initial investment) comes from surplus value, which is extracted from workers as they produce more value than they receive in wages. This cycle enables capitalists to continually accumulate wealth by reinvesting profits and repeating the process.

Surplus Value and the Expansion of Capital
M’ (more money) represents the profit capitalists gain through the process of capitalist exchange, where money (M) is invested in commodities (C) and then sold for a greater amount (M’). This profit comes from surplus value—the gap between what workers produce and what they are paid. The extra, unpaid labor time, known as surplus labor, is the source of surplus value. Money becomes capital when it is invested in labor power and means of production to generate profit, primarily by extracting surplus labor from workers.

Capitalists sustain and expand their wealth by reinvesting profits (M’ – M) into further production. For instance, a business owner invests $500,000 (M) to hire workers and purchase supplies for building furniture. After production, the furniture is sold for $1,000,000 (C), and the company makes $1,000,000 in revenue (M’), resulting in a $500,000 profit. This process continues, generating ongoing surplus value for capitalists while workers remain dependent on wages. Capitalism, therefore, functions through the continuous extraction of surplus value from workers, ensuring that the capitalist class accumulates wealth while the working class sustains the system by selling their labor power.

Two key concepts in this video are the means of production and labor. In your comment, explain how you understand the means of production and labor. Give an example of each.

In the video, the means of production refers to the raw materials, resources, and land used to produce goods and services. These materials are essential for production but are not owned by the workers (laborers). Instead, they are provided by private businesses or owners for workers to utilize in order to generate production through their labor. Labor encompasses the physical and cognitive effort that workers dedicate their time and skills to producing goods and services,

which in turn determines the value of the means of production; without labor, the means of production have no value.

For instance, a means of production can be a Dell Computer which parts are considered raw material, and the processor, hard drive, RAM, and motherboard are raw materials or components that go into making the final product. The workers (laborers) the factory manufacturers that assemble these raw materials to produce or the workers in the office space utilize the assembled computer in the office . The workers from the factory and inside of an office are subjected to the power dynamics of capitalism. Both are owned by individuals, who sell their labor power (the ability to work) to employers in exchange for wages. Workers don’t usually own the means of production(Raw Materials).

Another important concept in understanding social class is value. Based on the ideas presented in Video 5.1, what is value?  What give “value” to value, what makes something valuable? 

The idea of value in Marxist theory explains that the worth of a product is closely related to the labor used to produce it. This is known as the labor theory of value, which states that the value of something comes mainly from how much labor time is needed to make it under normal production conditions. Karl Marx believed that the value of an item is directly linked to the work put into it, not the price it is sold for. This view criticizes capitalism by associating the connection between labor and value, focusing on the real effort people put into making goods instead of just economic transactions. 

Value isn’t just about supply and demand or how much a consumer is willing to pay; it’s more about the work that goes into the product. For example, if it takes 3 hours to make a sandwich in a deli compared to 30 minutes at a fast-food chain, the deli sandwich has more value because it requires more labor. This explains why something is considered valuable according to the labor theory of value.

How are labor and value related? What’s the relationship/connection between the two?

Labor and value simultaneously complement each other because labor is what constitutes value. Without labor, value has no substantial essence by which a product can be measured.

For example, if it takes 10 hours to create a work of art, the value of that artwork reflects the labor invested in it—specifically, the 10 hours of effort involved. In contrast, products that can be mass-produced in a shorter amount of time, such as automated factory goods, generally have a lower value. This is because they require significantly less labor; in some cases, the labor may be as minimal as simply flipping a switch to operate a machine that produces the product. As a result, the mass production of goods can lower their market value due to the reduced labor involved.

How do you understand the difference between labor and labor power? Hint: this is a key difference, give it your best shot based on what the video says about it, and your own ideas. We’ll clarify and develop it in our discussions, and in my video comments

Labor versus Labor power is the ability to define how much a worker expends their energy to do a specific job and how it is measured by their employee through what is determined as compensation. This distinction also explains why workers aren’t paid according to the value of what they produce but instead according to the cost of sustaining their ability to work (labor power), which includes things like food, housing, and healthcare. The labor, as we know it, is the work itself—the actual tasks completed by an individual. Labor power, on the other hand, is a measure of the capacity of what can actually be done from the time a laborer starts their shift at a corporation, such as from 9:00 AM to 5:00 PM. The total time is 8 hours that the individual is scheduled; however, only 4 hours would be compensated for, and the remaining 4 hours would be profit as surplus for the organization.

Surplus value is the additional worth generated by workers that exceeds the compensation they receive for their efforts. It represents the gap between the value a worker produces in a day and the payment they earn for their work. Surplus value is typically created by business owners, employers, or CEOs. The profits that these owners make come from the work provided by their employees. This additional value generated by workers isn’t paid back to them; instead, the employer takes it, which is how they make their profits. Marx views surplus value as unfair and a reflection of marginalized capitalism, which is a major factor in social class inequality. The working class sells their labor which creates value, but the capitalist class exploits that labor and keeps the profits, widening the gap between the rich and the poor. 

For example, consider a factory worker who works for 8 hours and earns $50 for the day. During that time, they produce products worth $100 each hour. So, over 8 hours, they create:

$100 x 8 hours = $800 worth of products. However, since the worker only receives $50, there’s a $750 difference, which represents the surplus value. This $750 is the extra value the worker generates beyond their pay, and the employer retains this as profit. It seems that those in charge, such as employers and owners, are positioned within the corporation to maintain financial control in order to secure profits. Financial control: The owners or employers manage the means of production, allowing them to establish the conditions for labor exchange (such as wages and hours). They determine what portion of the value generated by employees will be allocated to them as wages and how much will be retained as profit.

1. What is the distinction that Reading 4.3 makes between owners and employees? Give an example of each.

The distinction from the reading indicates that Owners are defined as the Wealth Class, while Employees belong to the Laboring Class. The Wealth Class does not rely on physical labor to generate wealth; instead, they depend on the Laboring Class to create production, which serves the demand for what consumers are willing to buy. 

When laborers create mass production for organizations, these businesses rely on their efforts to build surplus upon surplus. In contrast, employees primarily live off wages, salaries, and fees from the work they invest through labor, meaning there is no income unless they physically commit to earning it. 

For instance, consider a business like JPMorgan Chase, which holds all the monetary interests of the public. The owners do not need to work there to ensure profits continue to accrue; they do not need to be visible within this infrastructure to maintain profit. Executives, shareholders, and major investors profit from the institution’s success without directly performing frontline labor. 

On the other hand, a bank teller performs customer service, handles transactions, and assists with banking needs, but they do not share in the profits generated by the bank. Instead, they receive a fixed wage for their work. Laborers must clock in for their allotted time, earning a suggested salary based on their experience and education. However, these wages are often low enough to maintain high profits for the bank, ensuring substantial returns for the owners.

If a laborer cannot work any longer, they will face a loss of income, which could lead to homelessness and other dire consequences. 

1. How do you understand the quote by Adam Smith on pg. 28? What is it saying about labor?

wealthy. . T

How I interpret Adam Smith’s quote hints that the original meaning of true labor is energy exchange. It is not leveraged by money, which is merely a tool with no inherent value. Society has been conditioned to believe that capitalism must endure for its own survival. In truth, without labor, there would be no need for capitalism. Smith’s quote argues that labor is the foundation of value. Before the utilization of minerals( Gold and Silver) for monetary trade to purchase goods, the true cost of anything was measured by the amount of work (labor) required to produce it.

The reliance of laborers on the wealth of the upper class illustrates the issue of wealth inequality, which refers to the uneven distribution of wealth in our society. An extremely small group of people owns a significant amount of the world’s commodities. Statistically speaking, less than 1 percent of the population controls the majority of the market. If this extreme imbalance continues, it can further harm those in poverty and also negatively affect the wealthy, as their fates are intrinsically intertwined. As the poverty level rises, due to a lack of surplus produced by consumers, it will lead to potential economic collapse.

1. What are your thoughts on the main argument of Reading 4.4 that class is NOT an identity?

My thoughts are that liberals tend to claim that social class intertwines with the same identities we use through race and gender. This is a mistaken attempt to display the discrepancies that arise in social class, as they do not carry the same distinctions. I understand that liberals aim to address the injustices seen in monetary disparities among specific populations and how these issues affect genders through acts of sexism and racism. 

Social class, particularly the division between labor and capital, does have a connection to these societal dilemmas. However, you cannot use identity to distinguish social class because it is fluid and can change depending on the dynamics between capitalists and laborers. For example, if no one decided to engage in work, there would be no capitalists. 

Identity is a fixed aspect related to one’s pigmentation or other characteristics that society uses to assign distinctions, such as gender. In contrast, social class is a dynamic element of identity that refers to aspects of a person’s identity that can change over time due to personal choices, external circumstances, or evolving social conditions. Identity is generally considered to be a more static aspect; for instance, biological sex or racial identity can typically be perceived as fixed, even though they can be viewed differently through cultural or social lenses.

1. How do you understand the argument Reading 4.4. makes when stating that “class structures are built around a close form of dependency”? What is this close form of dependency, and can you think of an example?
2. The close form of dependency is when one cannot live without the other, much like the conditioned relationship between the capitalist and the laborer. The capitalist relies on the laborers to maintain the profits that their organization depends on for surplus, allowing them the comforts of life without indulging in hard labor. In turn, the laborer relies on the capitalist to sustain their ability to fulfill their consumer needs, which include paying for rent, providing for their family, funding college, and affording proper shelter. Without capitalism, laborers would have no occupations to pursue in their quest for the American Dream, which promises that if they work extremely hard, they will be greatly rewarded. I often reflect on this reward in relation to my parents, who were self-proprietors. I understood the message that the capitalist indoctrinate that “hard work”, is the pursuit of the so-called “land of milk and honey” ultimately resulted in their deaths. An example of this relationship is the clothing manufacturer, who acts as the capitalist and relies on laborers to design, sew, and produce clothing for profit. The laborers, or factory workers, depend on the clothing manufacturer to provide them with jobs and paychecks/ wages.

Posted in Discussion Board 4.2

1. Do you notice any similarities in the way social class is discussed in readings 4.1 and 4.2? Do you notice any differences in the way these two readings DIFFERENTIATE between social classes?

In my exploration of the concept of social class, I have found that there is significant overlap between the public’s understanding of social class and its definition in political discourse. As observed in reading 4.1, social class is typically described through various categories that accentuate superficial aspects, such as how individuals present themselves or how they categorize their social standing, including lower class, middle class, upper middle class, and upper class.

This subjective approach to defining social classes often focuses on factors like income, education, manners, and the type of environment one resides in, whether that be rural or suburban, or even in a more impoverished area. People commonly associate social class with visible markers of wealth, such as the type of car someone drives, their clothing, or jewelry passed down as heirlooms. These assumptions overlook the critical distinction regarding income generation: working-class individuals often rely solely on their labor for income, whereas those in the wealthy class can generate passive income through investments without the need for continuous effort.

The readings suggest that true social class can be more accurately defined by the categories of the working class and the capitalist class (the wealthy or owning class). Throughout both readings, I have noticed how they interrelate in their content. Ultimately, it boils down to a distinction where the wealthy are the owners of resources, while others must work to acquire what they need for their livelihoods. Both subjects share a commonality: they are both driven by money and are interconnected. Just like a tree and a human being, where we rely on oxygen and trees rely on us to exhale carbon dioxide, each cannot thrive without the other. In other words, if there were no laborers, capitalists would not exist

2.I live in Times Square, near the west side of 42nd Street, where the subway lines connect all the letters to the 1239 number line. This area serves as a microcosm of the city itself. It tends to cater to the low middle class, upper middle class, and upper class. The social classes do differ from west to east, with the west side of Manhattan showing a distinct separation based on income levels.

The west side is often seen as “new money,” meaning it’s comprised of individuals who earn their wealth, typically with incomes ranging from a minimum of $20,000 to upper middle class levels of $150,000 to $250,000.

As you move further east, you’ll find large corporations and residences belonging to what we categorize as “old money.”  These residents often include business executives, professionals, and those with significant investments or inheritances, reflecting a higher socioeconomic status. The value of these properties can range from $1 million to well over $10 million, depending on size, location, and amenities.
These are individuals who may or may not have a regular income but sustain their wealth through investments and profits.

On the west side, people range from those considered poor to those who are wealthy, and they generally need to earn an income to sustain their living arrangements and maintain their standard of living. In contrast, the corporations and residents on the east side typically engage in business and possess the investments that classify them as part of the wealthy class. This displays how the wealthy have separated themselves from the working class through the train system. The west side of earned income transportation is within close proximity, while the east side tends to be the farthest from the trains. The buses that run on York Avenue, near the FDR Drive and Second Avenue to even Third and Park Avenue, do not operate consistently. This inconsistency may be because the wealthy possibly have chauffeurs or private means of travel, which eliminates their need for public transportation. This is another way they maintain exclusivity from the laboring class.

There is also a significant homeless population in the area, which is often obscured from view. To maintain the image of Times Square as a tourist attraction, law enforcement and nonprofit organizations work to provide safe havens for the homeless and keep the area looking appealing. Times Square is often perceived as a utopia, a glamorous hub that hides its less fortunate realities. The presence of the working class in subsidized luxury housing helps to create an exterior that draws visitors to the area’s glitz and glamour, where stars are born, and attractions like Broadway shows, fine dining, and cinemas abound.

I feel that this is an inaccurate representation of the people. While there is affluence in the area, it is overshadowed by a significant celebrity presence and the excessive construction of luxury high-rises. This situation obscures the needs of low-income and middle-income classes, leading to a lack of necessary programs for these specific social groups. Additionally, it may create a misleading assumption that living among the wealthy means there is plenty to go around. In reality, the disparity in monetary distribution is staggering, with the wealthy retaining most of the profits while the laboring class struggles. The situation is severely disproportionate.

3.Based on Reading 4.2, I’ve noticed a general pattern regarding social classes in NYC. The Laboring Class tends to be grouped together and is separated from the Capitalist Class. For instance, the Financial District is surrounded by affluent high-rise buildings that offer accessible resources and specialized/private education. In contrast, the Laboring Class is more collectively joined, with businesses in their areas often being local delis, public housing, and liquor stores. Some neighborhoods, like parts of the Bronx, are characterized by what could be described as “desert land” due to the surrounding poverty-stricken resources, with limited amenities. This situation is compounded by repressive state ideologies, such as those embodied in RSI, which may lead to economic and social policies that benefit the elite while suppressing the rights and opportunities of the working class or marginalized groups. For instance, limited access to education, healthcare, or economic resources for certain populations could be a manifestation of this ideology.

1.The Repressive State Apparatus (RSA) intends to enforce compliance among the masses as a utilitarian authority, promoting a uniform mindset within the general population. Its primary goal is to ensure adherence to government-endorsed policies that enforce social obedience through conformity to laws and behavioral expectations. These regulations are upheld by institutions such as the military, the police forces, law enforcement agencies, and the prison system. These systems are designed to maintain control and promote what is deemed “corrective” behavior to ensure social order, often referred to as domestication. 

For instance, if an individual chooses to break free from these lawful constraints and seeks to regain their sovereign rights, or if they violate the laws applicable to U.S. citizenship, they may face severe repercussions. Potential consequences can include monetary fines, imprisonment, or social ostracism, where they may be labeled as a terrorist or extremist. The apparatus ensures that any act of resistance is not only discouraged but actively penalized, safeguarding the stability and continuity of social order.

Althusser refers to the term “repressive” to expose the characteristics of this specific apparatus. It relies on coercion, force, and punitive measures to maintain state control and suppress opposition. This distinguishes it from ideological mechanisms, which influence behavior through cultural and social norms. As a fellow Marxist, Althusser opposed repressive State Apparatus systems. He believed that societies maintain control over people not just through force (repressive methods) but also by shaping their beliefs and values (ideological methods). His theory argues that for the ruling class (Status Quo)to maintain its dominance, two key types of apparatuses are used: The Repressive State Apparatus, which was already explained, and the more subtle approach known as the Ideological State Apparatus, commonly used in schools, religion and educational systems.

2. Ideological State Apparatuses, play a significant role in shaping how we view ourselves and the world around us. They promote certain ideologies that reinforce the existing social order and economic systems. One of their key functions is to establish what is deemed “normal” or acceptable behavior, which often aligns with dominant cultural and moral values, particularly in areas like work, family roles, and obedience to authority. ISA’s also work to legitimize authority by fostering a belief that our current political, economic, and social systems are both just and natural, which in turn lessens the inclination for rebellion or resistance among individuals.

3.In Addition , they operate through various channels such as education, media, religion, and culture, subtly encouraging compliance with social expectations. For instance, schools do more than just impart academic knowledge, they also instill lessons on social obedience, discipline, and respect for authority. Its purpose intends to contribute to maintaining class structures by promoting ideologies that favor the ruling class, thereby discouraging social mobility. Consequently, unlike the Repressive State Apparatus ISA’s function through voluntary compliance rather than physical force, with individuals often internalizing these ideologies without fully realizing it. The role of ISA’s technology in this programming appears to influence one’s mental faculties, subtly diminishing personal autonomy in exchange for sacrificing individual rights to uphold the “status quo.”

One great example of how schools embody the concept of ISA is in their everyday practices. Schools don’t just focus on subjects like math, science, and history; they also play a vital role in teaching important life skills such as social obedience, respect for authority, and the values of hard work and punctuality. The daily school routine, complete with schedules, rules, and expectations for student behavior, closely resembles the way the work environment operates in the wider community.

The curriculum is then crafted to reflect the dominant cultural and economic values upheld by those in power. For example, the focus on standardized testing, conformity, and merit-based rewards encourages students to adhere to established rules. This system reinforces the idea that those who “work hard”, essentially those who follow the rules, are the ones who get ahead, while those who struggle to conform may unfortunately fall behind.

In the episode “Fifteen Million Merits” from Black Mirror, the society shown relies on media and entertainment to keep people in check, making it a great example of Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs) in action. The media serves as an Ideological Tool: the characters live in a world where media, especially TV, is a huge part of shaping their beliefs and behaviors. The main guy, Bing, spends most of his life cycling to produce energy and earn merits. He can use these merits for different forms of entertainment, particularly watching TV shows, which help condition people to fit into societal expectations.