1. The court system is better at protecting individual rights because judges don’t have to worry about getting re-elected or making voters happy. They’re supposed to focus on what the Constitution says and what’s fair, not what’s popular. That makes them more likely to stand up for people’s rights—even when it’s not the easy or popular thing to do. For example, in Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court ruled that segregated schools were unfair and unconstitutional. A lot of people at the time still supported segregation, especially in the South, so elected leaders weren’t going to touch that issue. But the Court stepped in and made a decision that protected the rights of Black students, even though it wasn’t the popular choice.

2. Yeah, in a way, the Supreme Court is kind of anti-democratic because the justices aren’t elected by the people and they get to keep their jobs for life. But that’s actually on purpose. The founders of the country didn’t want every part of the government to be controlled by majority rule, because sometimes the majority can make decisions that hurt smaller groups or individuals. That’s why federal judges are appointed—not voted in—so they can focus on what’s right and not worry about public opinion or politics. They’re supposed to be more neutral and make decisions based on the law, not on what voters want. It also shows how the system was built with the upper class in mind—people who were seen as educated and “above” the influence of the crowd were the ones trusted to make these big decisions.

1. The Establishment Clause is part of the First Amendment and says the government can’t establish or support a religion. Basically, it means the government must stay neutral in religious matters. The Lemon Test comes from a court case (Lemon v. Kurtzman) and is used to decide if a law or government action goes against this rule. For something to pass the test, it must have a clear, non-religious purpose, not promote or hurt any religion, and not result in too much involvement between government and religion.

2.Yes, burning the US flag is protected under the First Amendment as a form of free speech. The key court case for this is Texas v. Johnson (1989), where the Supreme Court decided that even though flag burning is offensive to many, it’s still a form of symbolic speech. The government can’t punish people just because others don’t like the message they’re expressing.

3.When someone says “I’m taking the Fifth,” they’re using their Fifth Amendment right to not answer questions that could make them look guilty of a crime. It’s a way to protect yourself from self-incrimination. You often hear it in legal settings, like court or during police questioning.

1. Differences in the Role of Citizens in Government

• Federal System: In a federal system, citizens have a say in government at multiple levels such as national, state, and local. Each level has its own powers, and citizens can vote for leaders at all these levels.

• Confederation System: In a confederation, the central government has little power, and the states or regions hold most of the control. Citizens are more involved in local or state governments, and the central government has limited influence over them.

• Unitary System: In a unitary system, the central government holds most of the power, and local governments have very limited authority. Citizens usually participate in local elections, but the national government has the final say.

2. The division of power is how the authority is shared between different levels of government, like national and state governments. In a federal system, powers are clearly divided—some are for the national government, and others are for the states. In a unitary system, most of the power is held by the national government, while in a confederation, the states have most of the power, and the central government has very little authority.

3. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the federal government affected New York State and its local governments in many ways. For example:

Financial Help: The federal government gave money to New York through programs like the CARES Act to help with healthcare costs, unemployment, and supporting businesses.

Health Guidelines: The CDC gave advice on things like social distancing and mask-wearing, which influenced how New York handled the pandemic, including when to reopen businesses or schools.

Mandates: The federal government also helped with vaccine distribution and sent the National Guard to help, which guided how New York carried out its own plans for vaccinations and public health efforts.

So, while New York had control over local decisions, the federal government provided resources and guidance that shaped how things were done in the state and local areas.

1. The Constitution was written by the wealthy elite, such as landowners, merchants, and influential professionals. These individuals were focused on protecting their power and interests. They were educated and financially stable, with people like George Washington. On the other hand, poor people, women, and enslaved individuals were excluded from the process. They didn’t have political rights or representation. These groups were intentionally left out, as the wealthy elite wanted to keep power in their hands. For example, women couldn’t vote, and enslaved people were not considered citizens.

2.The social class system in early America was different from today. Back then, the class system had more of a clear divide between the wealthy elite and everyone else. Most people, especially the poor, had little chance to improve their social status. Racial inequalities also played a huge role, as enslaved Africans and Indigenous people had no political or economic rights.Today, the social class system is more flexible. There are more opportunities for education and career growth, although there are still significant wealth gaps and unequal opportunities. So, while class differences still exist, they are not as fixed as they were in the 18th century.

3. The people who wrote the Constitution were afraid of democracy because they didn’t want the common people to have too much influence. They were worried that the lower classes might make decisions that could destabilize the country or harm their own wealth and property. For example, they feared that groups like farmers or debtors might push for policies that would disrupt the existing economic system.Since the framers were part of the wealthy elite, they believed that only educated and property-owning individuals should have real political power.

1. The means of production are the things needed to create products, like factories, machines, or land. These are the tools that allow us to produce goods and services. Labor is the work that people do to use these resources to create things. It is the skills and energy put into making products. One example of production is a car factory with all the machines and equipment used to build the cars. Labor will then be the workers who assemble the cars and do the actual work in the factory.

2. Value is what makes something important or useful in society. It’s not just about the price of something, but also about how much work it took to make it.The value of something comes from the labor that goes into making it. The more work or effort required, the higher the value.What makes something valuable is the labor that’s involved in creating it. For example, a handmade piece of furniture might be considered more valuable because of the time and effort the craftsman put into making it.

3. Labor and value are connected because the amount of work that goes into creating something directly affects its value. The more labor involved, the more valuable the product is considered to be. For example, if a worker spends several hours crafting a product, the value of that product is higher because more labor has been put into it.

4. Labor is the actual work people do to produce things. Labor power is the worker’s ability or potential to do work. It’s about the energy or capacity a person has to offer, not the specific tasks they perform.

5. Surplus value is the extra value created by workers that goes beyond what they are paid. It’s the difference between what workers are paid and the value of what they produce.Surplus value is important because it helps explain how wealth is distributed in society. Employers make a profit from the surplus value created by workers, who get paid less than the value of their work. For example, If a worker is paid $50 for a day’s work but produces $200 worth of goods, the $150 difference is surplus value, which the employer keeps as profit.

The wealthiest 1% own over 40% of the nation’s wealth. This really stood out because it shows just how much of the country’s wealth is controlled by such a small group of people. It’s crazy to think that just 1% of Americans have control over more than 40% of all wealth. It shows how unfairly wealth is distributed and how difficult it can be for the average person to have the same opportunities or access to resources.

Living in a society that has huge wealth inequities creates a bigger gap between the rich and the poor, which leads to more tension and resentment. It makes it harder for lower-income people to get ahead.In cities, the wealthy are often able to live in nicer areas while the poor are forced to live in less desirable places, which affects their access to better schools, jobs, and healthcare.

M (Money) → C (Commodity) is the first step where the capitalist starts with money (M) and buys a commodity (C). This commodity could be raw materials, tools, or labor power. The capitalist does not buy commodities for personal consumption, but to resell them later at a profit. The capitalist sells the commodity they bought (C) to someone else for more money, resulting in M.’ A small-scale commodity production is represented by C (Commodity) → M (Money) → C (Commodity). The value of what they sell is the same as what they buy. This is about meeting personal needs and not about making a profit. In C-M-C, you are just exchanging goods for what you need. No profit is made. In M-C-M,’ the goal is to make a profit. The capitalist buys something and sells it for more money than they spent. In M-C-M,’ the profit or surplus value comes from the workers who produce more value than they are paid for. The capitalist makes money by paying workers less than what their work is worth. Money turns into capital when it is used to buy things that will generate more money. The capitalist buys workers and materials, and through the production process, they sell what they made for more money than they spent. This is how they get richer. Workers create surplus value through surplus labor. The time workers spend to produce goods equal to their wages. Surplus labor is the extra time workers spend working beyond what they are paid for. This extra work creates more value, which the capitalist takes as profit. The difference between C-M-C and M-C-M’ is that in capitalism, the goal is to make a profit. The capitalist buys labor and materials, and through surplus labor, they make more money than they spent. This is how they keep increasing their wealth.

1. The difference between owners and employees is their source of income. For example , owners make profits by owning and investing in products rather than working for wages. Employees sell their labor for wages. They depend on employment for income. Mark Zekelburg owns Facebook and profits from the company. A digital editor for Facebook earns a wages for editing the design of the app and much more.
2. The quote by Adam Smith explains that labor is the foundation of economic production, but they don’t get the recognition of how important their work is. I completely agree with Adam Smith because without the workers , there would be no work products.
   
3. My main thoughts on class is not an identity is that class is more about social relations rather than something people are born into.
4. The argument that class structures are built round a close form of dependency means that social classes are connected through relationships driven by economic power. People’s positions within the class hierarchy are dependent on the actions, resources, and the labor of those in other classes.
   An example of close form dependency , is the relationship between owners and workers. Owners depend on workers to produce goods that will generate profit, while workers depend on owners to provide employment and wages.