1-Means of Production and Labor: The means of production refers to privately owned, capitalistic production, such as tools, machines, factories, and materials necessary for producing goods. For example, a furniture factory and its machines are part of the means of production. Labor is the human part like effort experiences and skills that combine physical and mental that go into producing goods and services. For example, a factory worker operating a wood machine to produce furniture is performing labor.

2-Understanding Value: Depending on Marxist theory, value is measured by the necessary labor time required to produce a good or service. This means that something becomes valuable because of the labor that goes into making it under normal circumstances, rather than just its usefulness or rarity. For example, a handmade wooden chair takes more labor time to produce than a mass-produced plastic chair. According to Marxist theory, the handmade chair has more value because of the greater amount of labor required to create it. Thus, what makes something valuable is not just its material or usefulness but the amount of human labor invested in its production.

3-Labor and Value: Labor creates value. The more labor time it takes to produce something under standard conditions, the more value it holds in a capitalist economy. However, employers seek to maximize profits by paying workers less than the full value of what they produce. For example, if a worker produces a pair of shoes in two hours, and the employer pays them for only one hour of work, the extra value from that unpaid labor goes to the employer as profit. In short, labor is what gives value to commodities, but workers do not receive the full value of what they produce.

4- The difference between labor and labor power is crucial in Marxist theory: Labor is the actual work performed using that labor power to produce goods or services. Labor power is a worker’s capacity to work with the ability, skills, and energy they bring to a job. This is what a worker sells to an employer in exchange for wages. in short, labor power is what the worker sells; labor is what they do.

5- Surplus Value: in Marxist economics, surplus value is the difference between the value a worker creates through their labor and the wages they are paid. It represents the unpaid labor that generates profits for the employer. Surplus value explains how capitalists gather wealth while workers remain economically dependent. It reveals the exploitative nature of capitalism, where workers do not receive the full value of what they produce. Example of Surplus Value, a worker in a bags factory: the worker is paid only $100 for the day. They make 10 pairs of shoes in an 8-hour shift. Each pair sells for $50, meaning the total value of their work is $500.

C-M-C: Small-Scale Commodity Production: This represents the economic activity of artisans, farmers, and small producers who create goods (C: commodity) to sell (M: Money) to buy something they need (C). The main goal is use-value, meaning production is driven by necessity rather than profit. for example, A farmer works on his farm to produce vegetables (C), sells them for money (M), and then uses that money to buy food or other necessities (C). 

M-C-M’ represents the capitalist cycle, where money (M) is invested to buy commodities (C) to sell them for a greater amount of money (M’). Unlike small-scale production, which focuses on fulfilling personal needs, the primary objective of this process is to generate profit through surplus value. The difference between M’ (the increased money) and M (the initial investment) comes from the surplus value extracted from workers, as they produce more value than they receive in wages. This cycle allows capitalists to continuously accumulate wealth by reinvesting profits and repeating the process. 

M’ (More Money) represents the profit capitalists gain through the cycle of capitalist exchange, where money (M) is invested to buy commodities (C), and these commodities are then sold for a greater sum (M’). This profit comes from the surplus value, which is the difference between what workers produce and what they are paid. Workers generate more value than their wages, and this extra, unpaid labor time, called surplus labor, is the source of surplus value. Money becomes capital when it is invested in labor power and means of production to generate profit, with the key being the extraction of surplus labor from workers. Capitalists maintain and increase their wealth by using the profits (M’ – M) to reinvest in more production, expanding their wealth over time while paying workers only a portion of the value they create. For example, a company might invest $100,000 (M) to hire workers and buy materials, and after workers produce goods worth $200,000 (C), the company sells them for $200,000 (M’), making a $100,000 profit. This process repeats, continually generating surplus value for capitalists while workers remain dependent on their wages. Thus, capitalism relies on the continuous extraction of surplus value from workers, ensuring that the capitalist class remains wealthy while the working class sustains the system by selling their labor power. 

1- The distinction that Reading 4.3 makes between owners and employees.

“Small businesses are just so many squirrels dancing among the elephants,” as Michael Parenti puts it in Democracy for the Few, underscores the imbalance of power between owners and employees in the capitalist system. The distinction between these two groups is rooted in their control over resources and their roles in wealth production. Owners, or capitalists, control the means of production, such as factories, land, or technology, and accumulate profits primarily through the labor of employees. Employees, in contrast, do not own these productive resources. Instead, they sell their labor in exchange for wages, often without much control over the conditions or outcomes of the work they perform. For example, a CEO or shareholder of a corporation benefits from the company’s profits, while a factory worker or service employee earns a set wage, dependent on the employer’s decision-making, rather than from ownership or control of the business itself. This creates a clear divide in economic power and wealth generation between the two groups.

2-UnderstandIing the quote by Adam Smith on pg. 28:

Adam Smith says, “Labor… is alone the ultimate and real standard by which the value of
all commodities can at all times and places be estimated and compared. It is
their real price; money is their nominal price only.” This quote emphasizes the central role of labor in determining the true value of commodities, arguing that labor is the ultimate and real standard by which we measure value. According to Smith, while money is the price we attach to goods in the marketplace, it is labor the effort and work that goes into creating, transforming, and distributing a product that determines its true worth.

3- Class as NOT an identity (Reading 4.4):

In Class Rules Everything Around Me by Paul Heideman, the main argument that class is not an identity challenges the common perception that class is simply a personal or social label that people identify with. Heideman argues that class is not about how individuals see themselves or the lifestyle they choose, but rather about their position in the larger economic system and the power dynamics that come with it. For example, a person may identify with a particular class, but this self-identification doesn’t change their position within the economic system. As a result, the argument encourages a shift from viewing class as an individual identity to seeing it as a reflection of one’s role and power within economic and social structures.

4- Class structures and “close form of dependency” (Reading 4.4):

The idea that class structures are built around a “close form of dependency” means that different classes in society, especially owners and workers, depend on each other. This dependency is close because the success of the owners depends on the work of the employees, and workers rely on the owners for their jobs and wages. However, this relationship isn’t equal. Owners have more power because they control the resources and wealth. For example, in a company, employers need workers to create products or services, while workers need their employers for a paycheck to live. Even though they rely on each other, owners have more control over the money and working conditions, while workers have less control over their wages and work environment.

1. The similarities and differences in how social class is discussed in readings 4.1 and 4.2.
   Both readings 4.1 and 4.2 explore the role of social class in shaping people’s lives, emphasizing how economic factors influence daily experiences and societal positioning. In both texts, social class is linked to income, education, and occupation, which collectively determine access to resources and opportunities. However, they approach the topic from different perspectives. The first reading examines social class through self-identification, explaining how individuals perceive their social standing based on personal achievements, financial stability, and professional status. It highlights how people’s understanding of their class position affects their sense of belonging and social mobility. The second reading, on the other hand, focuses on external markers of class, particularly through public transportation. It illustrates how wealthier individuals often have the means to avoid crowded and less efficient transit options. Meanwhile, lower-income individuals rely heavily on public transit, exposing them to longer commutes and additional daily challenges.
   2- Social class tends to live in your neighborhood. In Staten Island, having one or two cars is often more convenient, especially since public transportation like buses can be slower and less accessible compared to other boroughs. The layout of the island and the lack of a subway system can make it harder to rely on public transportation, so owning a car becomes a practical choice for many people. Based on the concepts from Reading 4.1, which talks about how social class is shaped by things like income, this is because many neighborhoods in Staten Island tend to have a mix of working-class families and middle-class people who rely on wages and may not have access to high levels of wealth or high-paying jobs.
   3- The general pattern of social classes in NYC, Reading 4.2 highlights a clear pattern of social class differences in NYC, particularly in access to and experiences with public transportation. Higher-income individuals often avoid crowded subway stations, opting instead for taxis, private cars, or other expensive transportation options. Their financial stability allows them to prioritize comfort and convenience, minimizing their reliance on public transit. In contrast, lower-income individuals depend heavily on the subway due to its affordability, despite facing longer commutes, overcrowding, and less maintained conditions. Additionally, subway stations in wealthier neighborhoods tend to be cleaner and less congested, while those in lower-income areas are often overcrowded and in need of maintenance. This pattern reflects broader social inequalities, where economic status determines the quality and accessibility of transportation. Wealthier individuals enjoy greater flexibility in mobility.

1-Ideology is a collection of beliefs, values, and ideas that draw on how people understand society, politics, and economics. It explains events, helps to make a decision, and influences policies. Different ideologies often reflect varying perspectives on government intervention, economic structures, and individual rights. For example, conservatism is an ideology that values tradition, limited government, and free-market capitalism. Conservatives typically argue that reducing government intervention in the economy leads to greater growth and individual success. In contrast, liberalism supports active government involvement to engage in social justice, equal opportunities, and protection. A liberal might argue that policies such as minimum wage laws and universal healthcare are essential for ensuring economic fairness. Furthermore, Ideology influences not only politics but also everyday lifestyle, shaping how people view society, education, and culture. It often determines which policies governments perform, how societies apply inequality, and how individuals interact with one another. While ideologies can provide structure and consistency in political thought, they can also lead to division when groups with opposing beliefs impact. Recognizing different ideologies helps us better understand significant issues and enhance discussions about the future of society.

2- The Difference Between Conservative and Liberal Ideology in U.S. Politics

The main difference between conservatives and liberals in U.S. politics goes around their views on the role of government, individual freedoms, and social policies. Conservatives advocate for limited government, lower taxes, free-market, and social values. They believe that economic success comes from individual effort rather than government intervention. While Liberal support more active government role in economy, providing social programs, and ensuring equal opportunities. For example, Conservative always seek to oppose high taxes and government programs, arguing that they create dependency. In contrast, liberals support higher taxes on the wealthy to fund like healthcare and education. So, the fundamental principles of conservatism and liberalism stand in contrast, each presenting a different vision for society. Conservatism advocates free markets, personal responsibility, and the traditional values, believing that these elements enhance individual success. In contract, liberalism advocates for equality, and social justice, targeting to create equitable society for all.

3- Understanding Althusser’s Definition of Ideology: Althusser defines ideology as a set of ideas, beliefs, and representations that shape how individuals see and experience the world. He argues that ideology is not just a set of opinions but a rooted system that influences people’s behavior and identity. For example, in a capitalist society, schools teach students to obey rules, respect authority, and work hard to success. This reinforces the ideology that success comes from individual effort rather than systemic inequalities, making people accept the status as is without questioning it.

1- Althusser uses the word “repressive” because the RSA defines it through force rather than persuasion. Such as schools, churches, media, and families, which shape ideology and beliefs through cultural and ideological influence, the RSA works through direct coercion and punishment. A clear example of an RSA is the police force cracking down on protest movements. For instance, when workers organize a protest for unfair laws, the police might use tear gas, or violence to break up the demonstrations. His forceful intervention ensures the continuation of the existing economic and political order.

2-Althusser calls it “ideological” because it works through beliefs and values rather than brute force. People internalize the ruling ideology, often without realizing it, and thus willingly participate in their subjugation. They work through persuasion and internalization, meaning that people come to accept their social roles and inequalities as normal. For example, The media often reinforces dominant ideologies by shaping public opinion, defining what is normal or acceptable, and marginalizing alternative perspectives Families often teach traditional gender roles, obedience, and respect, reinforcing existing power structures.

3-The Repressive operates through force, using institutions like the police, military, prisons, and courts to enforce obedience. It functions through direct, physical repression, ensuring that those who challenge the existing power structure face consequences such as arrest, surveillance, or violence. The Ideological State Apparatuses, on the other hand, maintains control through ideology and persuasion, using institutions like schools, media, religion, and family to shape people’s beliefs and values.

The Ideological State Apparatuses condition individuals to conform willingly, making repression less necessary, while Repressive intervenes when ideological control fails, using punishment to maintain order. For example, schools teach obedience and individual responsibility, leading people to believe that poverty results from laziness. However, if students protest unfair policies, the police might suppress their dissent. This combination of ideological manipulation and physical repression ensures that power remains in the hands of the ruling elite.

4- The ads, often shown through television, social media, and magazines, promote the idea that beauty equals thinness, youth, and perfection, influencing people to conform to these unrealistic standards. Over time, individuals internalize these ideas and may feel pressure to look a certain way, buy certain products, or change their appearance to fit the dominant ideology of beauty.