Which Social Class Wrote the Constitution, and Which Was Excluded?
The Constitution was written by members of the wealthy elite—landowners, merchants, creditors, and plantation owners—who had significant economic and political influence. Beard argues in An Economic Interpretation of the U.S. Constitution that the framers were primarily concerned with protecting their property and financial interests. The excluded class included small farmers, laborers, debtors, and enslaved individuals, who had little to no say in the drafting process. For example, property requirements for voting and holding office ensured that only the wealthy could participate in governance. Events like Shays’ Rebellion (1786–1787), in which indebted farmers protested unfair taxation and debt laws, highlight the growing divide between economic elites and the working class. The framers saw such uprisings as threats to stability, reinforcing their desire to create a system that limited the political influence of lower-class citizens.

Comparison of Early U.S. Social Class Structure to Today
While the specific economic and political structures have changed, social class divisions remain a defining feature of American society. In the 18th century, wealth and power were concentrated in the hands of a small elite, with limited social mobility for the working class. Today, although legal barriers such as property requirements for voting no longer exist, economic disparities persist. Modern policies still favor the wealthy through mechanisms like tax cuts for corporations, the influence of money in politics (e.g., Citizens United v. FEC, 2010), and disparities in access to quality education and healthcare. Parenti’s critique of structural inequalities in early America remains relevant, as systemic factors continue to shape economic opportunity. The persistence of economic elites controlling political decision-making reflects Madison’s original intent of protecting property rights, ensuring that those with economic power maintain influence.

Why Were the Framers Afraid of Democracy?
The framers feared direct democracy because they believed it would allow the lower classes—who outnumbered the wealthy elite—to challenge economic privilege and push for policies that could redistribute wealth. Madison, in Federalist #10, explicitly expresses concern that a majority of non-property owners could unite to pass laws that threatened the interests of the wealthy minority. Historical examples, such as opposition to debt relief for farmers and resistance to paper money (which would benefit debtors), illustrate how elites sought to control economic policy. By designing a government with checks on direct popular influence—such as the Electoral College and the original system of appointing Senators rather than electing them—the framers ensured that decision-making remained largely in the hands of the wealthy. This aligns with Beard’s argument that the Constitution was created to serve the interests of property owners, rather than establishing an egalitarian democracy.