1. Differences in citizen roles:

• In a federal system, citizens are governed by both national and state governments and vote for leaders at each level.

• In a confederation, citizens mainly follow their state governments; the central government has little direct power.

• In a unitary system, the central government holds most power, and local governments act under its authority.

2. Division of power:
It means power is shared between different branches (legislative, executive, judicial) and between levels of government (national and state) so no one level or branch becomes too powerful.

3. Federal influence on NY during COVID-19:
The federal government gave New York funding through the CARES Act and FEMA, sent medical help like the USNS comfort , and provided vaccines and health guidelines. These actions shaped how the state and local governments responded to the pandemic.

1. The Constitution was mainly written by wealthy, educated, property-owning men mostly from the upper class of merchants, landowners, and elites. This group had political influence and wanted to protect their property and economic interests. The excluded class included small farmers, laborers, women, enslaved people, and those without property. For example, voting rights were limited to white male property owners, which left out the majority of the population from having a say in shaping the government. The framers believed that too much power in the hands of the poor and uneducated could threaten stability.

2. The social class structure of early U.S. society was very different from ours today, although some inequalities remain. In the late 1700s, class and political rights were directly tied to property ownership, race, and gender. Today, legal barriers like property requirements have been removed, and most adults can vote regardless of wealth or gender. However, we still see economic inequality shaping politics, since wealthier groups often have more influence through campaign funding, lobbying, and access to resources. So while the system is more democratic now, echoes of the old class divide still remain.

3. The framers of the Constitution were afraid of democracy because they associated it with “mob rule” and the possibility that poorer majorities would vote to take wealth or property from the elite. They wanted a government that protected private property and maintained order, which is why they designed checks and balances, the Electoral College, and limits on direct participation. In short, their fear came from class interests: they worried that too much democracy would undermine the power and privileges of the wealthy ruling class.

1. The concept “faction” reminds me of the idea of interest groups or political parties. Both represent divisions in society where people unite around shared interests, usually economic or political, and sometimes those interests clash with others. Madison worried that factions could threaten stability by putting self-interest above the common good.

2. According to Federalist #10, the source of wealth is private property, which comes from the diversity of human faculties talents, skills, and abilities. Madison argues that because people have different abilities, ambitions, and resources, some will naturally acquire more property than others. This inequality creates divisions between classes those with property the wealthy and those without the poor.

3. I partly agree with this explanation of wealth and poverty. It’s true that people have different skills and opportunities, but it leaves out how systems of privilege, inheritance, and discrimination also shape who gets wealth and who doesn’t. For example, someone may work just as hard but never gain wealth if they lack access to education or land. So, while Madison explains inequality as natural, in reality it is also social and political.

4. The “first object” of the U.S. government, according to Madison, is the protection of property rights. This might sound surprising because today we often think the government’s core mission is protecting equality, rights, and freedoms. But it makes sense in the historical context: the framers were property-owning elites who feared losing their wealth to majority rule. Today, while property rights are still protected, many people expect government to also provide social programs, justice, and equality.

5. I am not surprised that Federalist #10 favors a republican form of government instead of a pure democracy. A pure democracy would give direct power to the majority, which worried Madison because he feared the poor majority could unite and pass laws threatening the wealthy minority. By supporting a representative government, Madison believed it would filter and control factions, protecting elite interests while still giving some voice to the people. This shows how deeply connected social class was to the design of the Constitution.

1. Similarities and differences (Readings 4.1 & 4.2)
Reading 4.1 explains that Americans often define their social class based on factors like income, education, occupation, and lifestyle. It also shows that people’s self-perception doesn’t always match their actual economic situation. for example, many identify as “middle class” even if their income or resources suggest otherwise. Reading 4.2, the New York subway article, uses geography and subway lines to highlight how inequality plays out across the city. It shows how stops along the same subway line can reflect very different social classes, with wealthier neighborhoods close to poorer ones. Both readings emphasize how social class divides people, but 4.1 looks at self-identity and perception, while 4.2 highlights visible patterns of inequality in the city.

2. My neighborhood station
The station closest to me is subway (F – train). According to the subway inequality article, the area around this station is mostly middle-class. This seems accurate to what I observe in my neighborhood. For example, I see types of housing apartments, public housing, luxury buildings, etc. and the kinds of jobs people around here tend to have. I’m surprised by how well the article reflects my community because it matches what I notice every day.

3. General NYC pattern (Reading 4.2)
The subway article shows that New York City has strong class divisions that follow transit lines. Some stations are linked to wealth and privilege, while just a few stops away, other stations reflect poverty and limited opportunities. This creates a map of inequality where where you live and which station you use can reveal a lot about your social class. The general pattern is that NYC’s diversity also comes with sharp economic contrasts.

The means of production are the tools and things people use to make products, like machines, land, or materials. For example, a bakery’s oven and ingredients are means of production. Labor means the work people do, like a baker making cakes.

Value is what makes something important or useful to people. Something has value when people need it and when work is put into making it. Labor and value are connected because the harder or longer someone works to make something, the more value it can have.

Labor power means a person’s ability to work, and labor is the actual work they do. For example, when someone is hired, they sell their labor power, and when they work, it becomes labor.

Surplus value is the extra money made from a worker’s effort that goes to the owner, not the worker. For example, if a worker makes $200 worth of goods but gets paid $100, the owner keeps the extra $100 as profit.

The diagram M–C–M’ represents how capitalists maintain and increase their wealth. The “M” stands for money, “C” stands for commodities (like raw materials, machines, and labor power), and “M’” is the original money plus extra profit (surplus value). In this cycle, a capitalist starts with money, invests it into the means of production and labor, and then sells the finished goods for more money than they originally spent.

The key is that workers create more value through their labor than they are paid in wages, and this extra value (the surplus) goes to the capitalist as profit. For example, a factory owner may pay workers $100 to produce goods that sell for $300. the $200 difference is surplus value, which helps the capitalist grow wealth. By repeating this cycle over and over, and by using strategies like downsizing, speedups, and contract labor, capitalists expand their profits and strengthen their class position in society.

1- Brief description of Ideology:- In my understanding, Ideology is a collection of belief and values that shape how people see the world. It provides a framework for how individual think about the societies, government and the role of people within it. For example – someone with a liberal ideology may believe the government should play a larger role in providing social programs like education and healthcare. Detailed explanation – I understand ideology as more than just personal opinions. its is a structured way of thinking that connect values, principles, and goals together.

2- Difference between conservative and liberal ideology in US political – I understand the the different between conservative and liberal ideology mainly in term of how each side views government, change, and individual responsibility.Conservative often emphasize tradition, limited govt. personal responsibility and free markets.

3- Althusser’s definition of ideology – Althusser describe ideology asa set of ideas that shapes how people see the world and their place in it, often without them realizing it. in other words, ideology isn’t just about political opinions. its built into everyday life.

1 – Repressive state apparatus – a repressive state apparatus is basically a system or institution that uses force, punishment, or fear to make people follow the rules. Example – the police breaking up a protest with tear gas. That’s repression because it physically stops people from acting against the system.

2 – Ideological state apparatus – an ideological state apparatus is softer – it tries to shape how we think and what we believe so that we follow rules without being forced. Example- schools teachings us to be “good citizens” respectful authority.

3 – difference between RSA and ISA – the big difference is how they control people. RSAs use force while ISAs use ideas. one is more physical, the other more mental.

4 – A commercial that shows a perfect happy family eating dinner together and smiling. This is an Ideological State Apparatus at work it promotes the idea that being a good family means buying the product and following that lifestyle.