The Supreme Court decided that the women who worked at Wal-Mart could not move forward as a class-action lawsuit because they didn’t show “commonality.” That means the Court didn’t believe they all had the same problem or experience. The Court said each woman’s case was too different. This is important because “class-action” needs a shared problem for the group. The reading showed how Wal-Mart had patterns of discrimination, but the Court ignored that and focused only on legal rules.

1. In what ways is the court system better suited to protect the individual than elected branches of government? Give an example.

The court system is better at protecting people because judges are not elected and don’t need to make popular decisions to stay in power. They focus on the law and the Constitution, not on what will make people vote for them. For example, if a law passed by Congress takes away someone’s rights, the courts can say that the law is not allowed (unconstitutional) and protect the person’s rights.

2. Do you agree that the Supreme Court is an anti-democratic part of our government because judges are appointed, not elected? Why or why not?

Yes, I agree that it can seem anti-democratic because the people don’t vote for judges. But I think that’s not always a bad thing. If judges had to win elections, they might try to please voters instead of following the law. Appointing judges helps keep them independent and focused on doing what’s fair, not what’s popular. This way, they can stop unfair laws even if those laws are supported by elected leaders.

1. The “Establishment Clause” and the “Lemon Test”:

The Establishment Clause means the government can’t support or promote any religion. The Lemon Test helps decide if a law or action breaks this rule. It checks if the action (1) has a non-religious purpose, (2) does not help or hurt religion, and (3) avoids government getting too involved with religion.

2. Is burning the US flag protected by the First Amendment?

Yes, burning the US flag is protected as free speech. In the Texas v. Johnson case, the Supreme Court said flag burning is a type of symbolic speech, and the government cannot ban it just because it’s offensive.

3. What does “I’m taking the Fifth” mean?

It means a person is using their Fifth Amendment right to stay silent, so they don’t say something that could be used against them in court.

1. Briefly explain how you understand the system of division of power.

Division of power means splitting government power between different levels. In the U.S., we divide power between the national (federal) government and state governments. The federal government handles big things like defense or immigration, while states control local things like schools or driving laws. This helps make sure no one level has all the power.

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2. Describe the primary differences in the role of citizens in government, among the federal, confederation, and unitary systems.

In a confederation, local governments are strongest and citizens have more power locally. In a federal system, power is shared between national and local governments, so citizens vote in both. In a unitary system, the central government has most of the power, and local governments follow its rules, so citizens have less local influence.

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3. How does the federal government shape the actions of state and local governments? Write your answer based on doing a bit of research on how the federal government has influenced the actions of NY state and local governments, during the COVID-19 pandemic.

During COVID-19, the federal government gave money to New York State to help with hospitals, testing, and vaccines. It also set rules and guidelines that states followed, like travel restrictions or school closures. While New York made its own decisions, it was still influenced by federal funding and health rules.

1. What concept that we have already discussed does “faction” remind you of?

Faction reminds me of social classes, especially the division between rich and poor. Each group wants different things, and they fight to protect what helps them. Just like we talked about how people in power want to keep their benefits and don’t want change that could hurt them.

2. According to Federalist #10 (written by James Madison), what is the source of wealth (private property)? What factor explains why some people get to possess wealth by owning private property, and others don’t (thus remaining poor)?

Madison says wealth comes from private property. He believes some people have more skills or support—like education or family help—so they can buy land and get richer. Others don’t have those things, so they stay poor. He thinks it depends on people’s abilities and what they go after in life.

1. Who wrote the Constitution, and who was excluded?

The people who wrote the Constitution were rich white men from the upper class. Most of them were landowners, bankers, or businessmen. They wanted to protect their money and property. Poor people, women, Black people, Native Americans, and men without land were not allowed to be part of this process.

2. Is the social class structure the same today?

It’s similar but not exactly the same. Back then, only rich white men had power and rights. Today, more people can vote and have rights, no matter how rich they are. But still, rich people and big companies have more power in politics, like before.

3. Why were the writers of the Constitution afraid of democracy?

They were afraid that if poor people had more say, they would vote to change the system and take money and power from the rich. So, the elites made sure the government protected their interests and kept the poor from having too much control.

1. The statistic that stood out to me the most is that the top 1% of people in the U.S. own more wealth than 90% of the whole population.

That made me realize how unfair the system is. The rich keep getting richer, while so many people are struggling just to survive or take care of basic needs. It’s like the system is made to help the rich grow more, and keep the poor where they are.

2. Living in a society with this much wealth inequality causes a lot of problems.

People with more money can send their kids to better schools, get better healthcare, and live in safer places. But people with less money don’t have the same chances, so they stay stuck. That creates stress and unfairness. It also affects mental health and causes more division between rich and poor.

The M–C–M′ model shows how capitalists make money. First, they start with money (M), then buy commodities (C) like machines and workers’ time. After that, they sell the product for more money (M′).

The workers are paid less than the value they create. For example, they might work 8 hours but only get paid for 4—the rest goes as profit to the capitalist. This is called surplus value. That’s how the rich keep getting richer. They invest money, make products, and sell them for more. Then they repeat the cycle to grow their wealth.

1. Means of production and labor

Means of production are the tools and materials used to make things, like machines, cotton, or computers. Labor is the actual work people do with their hands or minds to produce something. For example, in a t-shirt factory, the sewing machines and cotton are the means of production, and the worker who sews the shirts is doing the labor.

2. What is value?

Value means how much labor or time it takes to make something. The more work or effort something needs, the more valuable it becomes. According to Marx, value comes from the amount of labor needed to make a product.

3. How are labor and value related?

Labor creates value. The more time and effort it takes to make something, the more value it has. For example, a handmade wooden table that takes 10 hours to make has more value than a plastic stool that takes only 1 hour.

4. Difference between labor and labor power

Labor is the actual work done by a person.

Labor power is the person’s ability or capacity to do the work. So, people sell their labor power (not just the labor itself) to the employer to get paid.

5. Surplus value

Surplus value is the extra money the company makes from your work that you don’t get paid. For example, if you work in a coffee shop and the shop makes $100 per hour from your labor, but you only get paid $20, the extra $80 is surplus value. It goes to the owner or boss. That’s how rich people stay rich—by keeping the extra value made by workers.