1. P. Williams writes in her essay, that the war on terror is a new type of a war. What’s new about it, how is it different from traditional wars?

Traditionally, wars were fought against specific groups of people associated with a religious belief or a particular region of the world, which could usually be easily identified. However, after the declaration of a war on terrorism the situation changed. Anyone from any walk of life could potentially be seen as the enemy. This has created a “mind war,” where our perceptions and interpretations differ significantly. What one person perceives as a threat may not be viewed the same way by someone else. I think the war on terrorism has transformed into a conflict that feels like it targets us all, rather than a war against a particular regime or identifiable group.

• In what ways does the “Roving Wiretaps” of the Patriot Act seem to violate the Bill of Rights? Which amendment(s) does it seem to violate and why?

Surveillance professionals assert that criminal wiretaps should only target individuals who are confirmed to be using a specific device. However, civil rights organizations argue that the Patriot Act’s language could lead to privacy violations for those with casual connections to suspects. They are urging Congress to require authorities to specify the device or person being investigated to prevent unnecessary surveillance of innocent people. This is important becuase it highlights a conflict between national security and individual privacy rights. The issue can be seen as a violation of protections guaranteed by the Bill of Rights, specifically the Fourth Amendment, which safeguards individuals against unreasonable searches and seizures.

• What about “Sneek and Peek” Warrants?

The First Amendment protects the rights to free speech, press, and assembly. If “sneak and peek” searches are used to collect information on individuals involved in political activism, it can be argued that these searches violate their freedom of speech or right to peacefully assemble. This is concerning if the searches are targeting individuals suspected of holding unpopular political beliefs or views.

1). Do you notice any similarities in the way social class is discussed in readings 4.1 and 4.2? Do you notice any differences in the way these two readings DIFFERENTIATE between social classes?

Social class in America is influenced by several factors like income, education, age, race, and geography, they shape how people identify with different classes. People with lower incomes often see themselves as working or lower class, while higher earners more commonly identify as middle or upper-middle class. College graduates are more likely to view themselves as upper-middle class. Older people often relate to higher classes due to their accumulated wealth and status. People in bigger cities also identify with having more wealth than those in rural places.

Social class is a mix of income and education along with personal perceptions shaped by individual experiences and backgrounds. The higher the income and education often comes with the thought of higher class identification. Social class is a spectrum that shifts based on personal circumstances and larger societal trends.

2). Pick the station closest to where you live. Using the concepts from Reading 4.1, what social class tends to live in your neighborhood? Are you surprised (or not) by the answer? Do you feel it is an accurate representation of the people living in your neighborhood?

I live near Jamaica Station, and I believe the statistics accurately represent my neighborhood. The diversity, the mix of social classes, and the different types of housing. Recently, gentrification feels particularly relevant, especially around the AirTrain and LIRR station, which seem to cater to an upper-class demographic in a still very working class neighborhood.

I walked past a Chipotle the other day and vividly remembered a Blimpie right across the street, along with a humble Jamaica Avenue where people used to shop for knock off clothes and cheap electronics. Many neighborhoods have been undergoing changes lately. Public transportation is a key factor for commuters to Manhattan, and I think people have realized how conveniently located we are. This has led to the development of luxury condos and the emergence of gentrifying brands like Starbucks, Chipotle, and Panda Express.

3). Based on Reading 4.2, do you notice a general pattern about social classes in NYC?

There is a divide between the owning class and the employee class. The owning class is made up of the wealthiest people who make their money from investments and the hard work of others. They accumulate wealth through profits without producing anything themselves. Then you have the employee class, which includes workers, professionals, and managers. They earn wages for their jobs but usually see only a small piece of the wealth they create.

Even when some employees make good money, their wealth is still tied to their jobs. The owners rake in profits from what’s called surplus value, which is the difference between what workers produce and what they get paid. This whole setup leads to a really uneven distribution of wealth. The top 1% owns such a huge chunk of the nation’s resources, leaving most Americans with very little in terms of assets.

1) Describe how you understand the “Establishment Clause” and the related “Lemon Test”.

The Establishment Clause of the First Amendment prohibits the government from establishing an official religion or favoring one religion over others. It ensures the separation of church and state, protecting religious freedom by preventing government interference in religious practices. Including issues like prayer in schools and religious displays on public property. The Lemon Test is a legal standard that determines if a law or government action violates the Establishment Clause. It requires the action to have a secular purpose, to neither advance or inhibit religion, and to avoid extra affiliation with any relgious institutions. If any of these criteria are violated, the action is considered unconstitutional.

2) Is burning the US flag protected by the First Amendment? Explain by referring to the relevant court case discussed in the reading.

The burning of the U.S. flag is a controversial form of protest. In 1984, Gregory Lee Johnson was arrested for burning the flag. But the Supreme Court ruled in Texas v. Johnson (1989) that flag burning is a form of symbolic speech protected by the First Amendment. In response, Congress tried to pass laws banning flag desecration, but these were struck down as unconstitutional. Attempts to amend the Constitution to allow such laws have not been succesful. The Supreme Court’s decision emphasizes the importance of free expression, even when the act is controversial. So, while burning the flag may be seen as disrespectful, it’s legally protected as a form of protest under the First Amendment.

3) What does it mean when someone says “I’m taking the Fifth”?

When someone says, “I’m taking the Fifth,” they are invoking their right to remain silent under the Fifth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. This amendment protects people from being forced to testify against themselves in a criminal case, allowing them to refuse to answer questions that could incriminate them.

Labor is human effort both physical and mental. used to transform raw materials into products or provide services. The means of production are what you need to make the actual things, and labor is the work people do to make those things happen.

Value refers to the worth or importance of something. What contributes to value is its usefulness, desirability, and cultural significance. Something is considered valuable if people are willing to sacrifice something for it, such as money or time. The value of an item depends on how much it is wanted, its utility, and the meaning it holds for individuals or society.

Labor contributes to the creation of value by turning raw materials into useful products. The more effort or skill is required to create something, the more value it can have. Labor determines the value of products.

Labor is the effort and activity that someone puts into creating something. So if a person is assembling a product they are using their labor. Labor power is a person’s energy, skill, and time they can offer like how skilled they are at doing something and for how many hours they can do it for. Labor is the actual work and labor power is the way the work is getting done is how I understood it.

Surplus value can explain how wealth and power are distributed in capitalist societies. Workers produce more value than they are paid. That extra value is the surplus and it is kept by the capitalists thats what makes them richer off laborers. Surplus value helps explain the widening gap between the rich and the poor, as the wealthy continue to profit from the labor of others.

Edwin Castano

1. Keeping in mind the material covered in this lesson, describe how you understand ideology in your own words.

Hint: One way to approach this is as follows

a) Describe what ideology is in a brief paragraph (in your own words).

Ideologies are split into three groups right, center, and left. The right is made up of conservatives and corporate elites. They think people should be self reliant and that poverty is a result of personal choices. They want to protect businesses. The middle tends to accept capitalism but prefers reforms to focus on inequality and poverty. They support public services and regulations, but also back military spending and globalization. The left are progressives and socialists. They favor social democracy and public ownership. Fight for fair wages, healthcare, and education for all. Left typically does not believe in capitalism. They want the government involved to protect the public.

b) Give an example illustrating what you wrote in (a).

Progressive movements in 2025 continue advocating for social democracy and public ownership. Some US. States have a progressive tax system that provides relief for low-income families while increasing taxes on corporations, This shows a commitment to fairness and social services.

c) Write another paragraph (or two), explaining to your reader with additional details, how you understand ideology.

Progressives and socialists fight for the rights of workers, believing in the need for a society where public ownership and social democracy ensure equality. Similar to a union that supports fair wages, accessible healthcare and access to education for everyone. They don’t believe anyone should be left behind due to their socio-economic status.

2. How do you understand the difference between conservative and liberal ideology in US politics? What seem to be the big differences, the dividing line? Given an example to backup your arguments.

Hint: try to identify key words (concepts) that play a big role in making someone consider themselves to be liberal or conservative. Then, explain in your own words what those keywords (concepts) mean.

Liberals support a larger government role like social safety nets for individuals, progressive taxation, environmental protection, and public health. All to create a fair society.

Conservatives value limited government interference and traditional values, a free market economy, and lower taxes. They value individual responsibility and think poverty is a personal choice.

3. How do you understand Althusser’s definition of ideology? Paraphrase it in your own words. Given an example. Hint: you may have to watch the second video again, and find the few places where Althusser’s position is presented.

Althusser argued that ideology functions to maintain the power of the ruling class by reinforcing the social order. He believed individuals willingly accept the dominant ideologies of their society. He had the belief that schools, churches, media, and families all held their own values and beliefs that upheld the structure of society. He argued that ideology functions to maintain the power of the ruling class by reinforcing the social order.