1. The diagram M-C-M’ shows how capitalists remain and become wealthy, and to understand this better, we can work with C-M-C, which is a representation of small scale commodity production. In C-M-C, a person sells a commodity to acquire money to buy something they need. The target is use or consumption. The value at the end is basically the same as at the beginning. The difference with M-C-M’ is the target. A capitalist starts with money (M), buys commodities (C), including labor power, and sells the final product to end up with more money (M’), which is greater than M because it includes surplus value (profit). The difference between money and capital is that money is turned into capital when it is used to buy labor power (which can create new value), because the workers’ value is produced in a day which is enough to cover their wages (necessary labor) but they continue to work. The time that remains is surplus labor, and the value produced in that duration becomes surplus value, which the capitalist retains as profit. That is the definition of capitalism, and it is how this cycle can be repeated continuously. The capitalist M can become M’ through capital accumulation , and this explains how the capitalist class remains wealthy as a class.

1. The means of production are all the physical and tangible components required for the creation of commodities and services. These are factories, land, machines, tools, materials, and technology, etc. The means of production exclude the human factor. For instance, in a fast-food outlet, the means of production are the grills, fryers, building, and food supplies. Production also involves the use of human resources, in both physical and mental terms, and it is he/she who converts these materials into something useful. For example, fast food workers who are cooking the food and taking orders are also providing the labor. Means of production are the resources and tools, and labor is what sets them into motion.
2. Based on the video, value is not just about how much someone likes something. It has to do with how much socially necessary labor time it takes to produce a commodity. What gives something value is the amount of labor required to make it under normal working conditions. So something is valuable because labor was put into it. If no human labor is involved, it doesn’t have economic value in this sense. Value comes from the work that goes into producing something.
3. The basis of a capitalist economy is the fact that labor creates value. When workers exert their labor on the means of production, they produce more valuable commodities. There can be no production without labor, and no value. Thus, in a capitalist economy, labor is the primary source of value.
4. The difference between labor and labor power is really important. Labor is the actual work someone performs. Labor power is the worker’s ability or capacity to work. Under capitalism, workers don’t sell the products they make they sell their labor power to an employer for wages. The employer then uses that labor power to generate labor during the workday. So labor power is potential, and labor is the action.
5. Surplus value is the additional value produced by employees which is not compensated in their wages. It is the gap in value between what an employee generates for the company compared to what he/she gets paid. For instance, a laborer may produce 300 dollars worth of goods in one day yet his/her wage is only 120 dollars. In this case, 180 dollars becomes the owner’s surplus value. It is an important concept because it demonstrates how profit is made and the reason for social class disparity. It illustrates how the wealth of the owners of the means of production is derived from the labor of employees that is not paid.

1. Reading 4.3 explains that the key distinction between owners and employees is based on who owns productive property and who must sell their labor to survive. Owners live primarily off investments and profits generated by the labor of others, while employees depend on wages and salaries. Owners make money because others work for them, whereas workers create value but receive only a portion of it as wages. An example of an owner is a person who has a company and receives income from profit shares. An example of an employee is a factory worker or a manager who is being paid a salary and doesn’t have any ownership of the business.
2. Adam Smith argues that labor is the “real price” of commodities, meaning that labor is what truly creates value. The reading underscores that without the effort, skill, and time of workers, there would be no products to sell. In most cases, the products of raw materials are transformed into useful goods through labor. In the case where the only inputs are money and no labor, there would be no value added. In essence, the quote highlights that although the employees do not capture the entire value of what they produce, they are the creators of the wealth.
3. Reading 4.4 argues that class is not simply an identity like race or gender, but a structural position in society. Unlike identity categories that are about social recognition, class determines people’s economic roles and interests. I interpret this standpoint as stating that class informs power and material survival beyond individual self-perception. While class can be internalized as an identity, it also structures access to resources and command over the means of production.
4. The reading explains that class structures are built around a close form of dependency because workers depend on capitalists for jobs, and capitalists depend on workers for profit. This indicates that for both parties involved, their relation is a matter of survival and economic reproduction. A case in point is a worker who requires a salary in order to pay rent and purchase food, while a business owner requires workers in order to make a profit. If workers strike, the owner loses money. This mutual but unequal dependency is what makes class different from other identities it involves direct economic interdependence and power.

2. The closest station to me is Brooklyn college/Flatbush Ave. Regarding the ideas I got from reading 4.1, I would say that a lot of the people in my community would be within the lower middle to middle class. Gallup said people take social class to mean more than just income, but also consider education, type of job, and way of life. There are a number of working families, students, small business owners, and old-timers around Flatbush. There is a variety of economy, but overall, it does not seem upper class or wealthy. I am not surprised by this classification, as the neighborhood has always seem mixed, but predominantly working and middle class. I do think this is a fairly accurate representation. There are some residents of higher income, and some families of less income who are struggling, but most people do seem to fall within that broad middle range that Gallup describes.

1. A Repressive State Apparatus (RSA), according to Louis Althusser, is made up of state institutions that keep order mainly through force or the threat of force, like the police, courts, military, and prisons. He calls it “repressive” because these institutions don’t try to convince people; they punish people when rules are broken. Pretty much the idea is to follow the rules or face the consequences at hand. An example would be if someone were convicted of a crime. After the police apprehend someone, the court will determine a punishment. People will stay in check because even tho violence wasn’t used, it can always be used.
2. Another one of Louis Althusser’s theories includes what he calls Ideological State Apparatuses, or ISAs. Unlike Repressive State Apparatuses, ISAs do not use violence, but rather influence people’s ideas and beliefs. ISAs include institutions such as education, religion, the family, media, and various forms of culture. By systematically teaching different perceptions of the world and in what regard the individual holds themselves in relation to the world, ISAs describe and teach people to see the world in such a way that perpetuates the status quo as a natural system. Instead of using violence to punish people, ISAs instill values such as compliance, working hard, and respecting authority. An example of this can be seen in schools. They do not just teach you math. Schools also teach you rules, discipline, and to be on time. All of this prepares you to enter the workforce. The most impactful part of ISAs is that people do not realize that they are being influenced. This is part of what makes ISAs so effective. They help sustain society, and do so without the use of violence.
3. The Repressive State Apparatus (RSA) and Ideological State Apparatus (ISA) differ mostly in the way they control the social order. To start with, the RSA uses the police, the army, the courts, and in general, the prison system. They enact punishment for social (and legal) order violations. Obedience with the RSA is a product of fear. In contrast, the ISA relies on social order violations. It uses schools, religions, and the media to control how people think and ensure they do not view the system as a social order violation. Fear is not a factor in compliance with the ISAs. They rely on social order violations. In short, the RSAs control behavior by fear and the ISAs by thought. The two systems rely on each other, as do the ISAs, to maintain social control.

This is an example of an Ideological State Apparatus (ISA)

1. An ideology helps shape a person’s worldview, or what they think society should be like, by providing a system of beliefs and values. It affects a person’s perception of a society’s governance, structure, and organization, and also how people think about other issues, such as how people should be free and treated equally, often without people realizing it. For example, think about the differences between liberals and conservatives regarding ideology and the role of government. Conservatives believe that a smaller government will protect individual liberty. On the other hand, liberals would believe that a more active and aggressive government is needed to promote equality and keep the people from harm. I believe that the best way to describe ideology is that it is a framework that guides how people interpret social issues and make their political decisions. I believe this is partly learned from the family, partly from education norms, and partly from the media, and it is hard to recognize this system of principles as values that should be used, so it is often taken for granted.
2. I recognize the difference between conservative and liberal ideology mainly in the forms of liberty versus equality, as well as the extent of governmental power. Conservatism embraces limited governmental interference, personal accountability, and individual autonomy, especially in economic matters. On the other hand, liberals advocate for social and economic intervention to enhance equality as well as protect people from social and economic challenges. A good example of this is the healthcare system. Generally, conservatives embrace the free-market system in which individuals have the liberty to make their own choices concerning their healthcare. On the other hand, liberals are in favor of government intervention in order to ensure healthcare access for all, which may require more control and increased taxation. This example is indicative of the conservative emphasis on liberty and the liberal focus on equality.
3. Althusser defines ideology as the set of beliefs and ideas that shape a person’s conception of themselves and the world, originating not from individual choice but from the surrounding society. These beliefs seem self-evident, and as though they originate from nature, but are in fact constructed by social institutions, which can be identified as schools, the media, religion, and the family. Thus, ideology helps people to accept and reproduce the existing order of society, through the stifling of true social thought and social action, believing that their ideas and actions are free, when in fact they are the product of social conditioning and social control. One of the clearest illustrations of this in schools is patriotism. Students in primary and secondary school learn to stand up for the national anthem and venerate their country as if it were the best, learn to verbalize pride for their country, and learn narratives about national heroes. All of this teaches them a great deal more than just historical facts. It teaches them to think about themselves and the society in which they live as loyal, and thus “normal”, members of the state. By doing this, social institutions introduce and perpetuate an ideology that normalizes obedience to the state and the acceptance of the relative status quo.