Question 1: The Constitution was written by the wealthy, propertied upper class (lawyers, merchants, plantation slave owners). The excluded were small farmers, the working class, enslaved people and women. The difference was writers having economic interests like government bonds they wanted to protect. The excluded class was made up of agrarian laborers, debtors and people with zero property rights which mean no political voice.

Question 2: To be honest I feel like it’s a mixture of both still because wealth inequality still exists in politics while the millionaires are overrepresented heavily in Congress today and political inclusion exists. Today, property requirements aren’t in place to vote, and women/minorities have a voice legally and they can hold office now which is a major step up from 1787 so I can say both points are still valid for present day.

Question 3: They had the fear of “tyranny of the majority” especially for the poor people and lower class. They ended up using the democratic voting power to redistribute the wealth. The elites did worry that the majority of regular citizens had a gain of controlling the government which in turn they would vote to cancel debts, abolish public credit which had the upper class’s investments ruined.

Faction reminds me of social classes and modern special interest groups. Madison described a faction as a group of citizens united by a common passion or economic interest that runs counter to the rights of other citizens or the interests of the community as a whole. According to Madison, the source of private property is the “diversity in the faculties of men”. This context explains that a person’s natural talents, abilities and skills are the faculties. It’s explained that wealth inequality happens because of people showing capability in different ways. Higher faculties accumulate wealth and property whereas the lower faculties stay poor. The authors viewed class differently is a natural result of human differences instead of societal flaws. I will say I disagree with Madison’s explanation of wealth and poverty because it ignores systemic inequality. Individual talent and hard work are a factor, but Madison overlooked the structural advantages such as inherited wealth or having access to resources actually dictate who gets to own property and who remains poor. Wealth isn’t a reflection of natural ability. Madison states that the “protection of these faculties” meaning the protection of unequal distribution of property is the “first object of government”. It’s interesting because modern political rhetoric usually suggests the core mission of government is the promotion of welfare, protecting equal and ensure safety. Madison’s view states the prioritization of safeguarding private property and the wealth gap over social equality. Given his view and focus on protecting property, this doesn’t surprise me that Madison opposes a pure democracy but favors a representative republic. His dislike for pure democracy linked this to the poorer majority would have voting power. His fear of the lower social class uniting to outvote the wealthy minority would cause the passing of laws for debt relief or wealth redistribution that can destroy the economic standing of the upper class so having a republic filter for these demands through elected officials help protect the interest of elites instead.

The means of production and labor with the means of production being the physical non-human inputs that help create the goods and services. This will be factories, machinery, tools, land and raw materials. For example, today we have modern clothing factories with means of production that have sewing machines and fabrics within the building. Labor is the physical human components with mental effort as well that are used during this process of production. This active force is how raw materials are transformed into finished goods. An example could be the garment worker operating a sewing machine to put together a jean jacket.

For the concept of value and basing it on Marxist political theory, value is determined by the amount of socially necessary labor time that is required for the production not on how much an item is liked. Human labor is what gives objects their value. Without that labor what value is there? The raw materials will gain their economic value when the human effort is applied for the transformation which in turn is used for commodities.

The relationship between labor and value is that they are both intertwined because labor is the source of all economic value. If there is no human labor, the machines and raw materials stay untouched with nothing new being produced. The transformative force of labor transfers the existing value of the materials and tools making it a new commodity while generating brand-new value for the production process.

Labor vs Labor Power are vastly different. Labor power is the worker having the capacity to work which includes their brain power, skills , knowledge , and muscles. Under capitalism, this type of commodity is how workers sell what they bring to their employer which in turn earns them a wage.

Labor is the exercise of this capacity which is the work actually being done on the clock. The capitalist exploitation heavily relies on this difference. The capitalist purchases the labor power for its market value (wages) but it is gained at a higher amount of the actual labor from the worker on their shift.

Surplus value is extra value generated by the workers above and beyond what they are compensated for survival and the return of work. The importance of social class is vital because it shows the underlying mechanism for these class conflicts. Capitalist profit comes from the unpaid labor of workers while the capitalist class owns the means of production. For example, lets say a worker is paid $100 for an eight hour shift. Within those first two hours the worker already produced $100 worth of products which in turn they paid for their daily wages. Those leftover six hours , the worker will continue to produce goods and services worth another $300. The extra amount is the surplus value that goes to the owner.

The understanding of the capitalist class and their maintaining of the increase of their wealth, the contrast of the difference of social classes operating with the use of the economic formulas that go into detail from the reading from “How Capitalism Works”

From then up until now, everyday life follows this formula it being C-M-C (Commodity–Money–Commodity). For example, a worker brings a commodity, their labor power to the market to sell for money and they use that to purchase more commodities like food and housing that they personally need. This cycle shows the value is equal from beginning to end with the goal being survival. The capitals operates the opposing way using thus formula of M-C-M (Money–Commodity–Money). The money is what the capitalist starts with . The commodities bought for manufacturing. Instead of just trading finished goods, it explained that the capitalists realized they can’t create endless wealth from buying and selling to each other . Instead, they must become manufacturers using their money from the start (M) to buy specific commodities (C). This is the means of production (buildings, machinery and raw materials ) and the labor force. The unique role of labor shows these elements being brought together, the physical means of production are transferred with their value towards the new products . The human labor and exercising of the labor force is active and transformative, leading to labor being the sole source of new economic value. Money prime and the surplus value are the capitalist buying labor power at the market value which in turn generates a higher amount of the actual labor during production, the workers gain more value instead of wages. The capitalist sells the final products for a higher sum of money (M). This mathematical relationship is M’=M+m leading m to be the gain, profit, or surplus value. Capitalists maintain and increase their wealth by reinvesting over and over again M’ back into that cycle to grow steadily with their means of ownership while capturing the surplus value that comes from the working class.

The main argument on page 29 that stands out to me is Parenti’s breakdown of unearned income vs the true production, with specifics of him observing that “capital itself cannot produce anything”. It’s noted from him that all of Rockefeller’s immense wealth can’t build a house, machine or toothpick. Human labor can. This heavily implies that wealth inequality isn’t driven by capitalist with hard work but instead a system is in place where the contributions aren’t met they in turn accumulate the vast majority of the profits because of ownership like a corporation or house. We live in a society with major wealth gaps that shows social divisions clearly with deep anxieties. Let’s take the housing crisis for example. Working class people who actually provide the essential labor such as teachers , transit workers, janitors etc… they stay priced out of neighborhoods where they work because the real estate is an investment asset for the corporate capital instead of a human need. In everyday life, the profits from these corporations and the compensation from these executives are at an all-time record high while the consumer prices rise and our wages remain the same. An example of this is retail and fast food workers who handle hundreds of orders but they can’t afford the products they sell or the cost of living.

Both readings in 4.1 and 4.2 are showing the social class in NYC being divided by geography and economic status. Now reading 4.1, the difference in classes is more from the demographics of the individuals and their localized income levels. In 4.2, that reading is heavily focused on structured broader patterns about the wealth shaping the inequality within the boroughs.

The Chambers street station is close to BMCC. The neighborhood shows wealth in the upper middle class because of the high real estate in lower Manhattan . The commercial development and high cost of living in the city aligns with those who reside here so the representation of those in this neighborhood shows the current economic status.

Based on Reading 4.2 the social classes show a pattern in NYC. Segregated neighborhoods like those from wealthy areas throughout the city and more vs the poor lower classes in the boroughs being pushed out towards the outer boroughs because of the economic pressure from the system.

Reading 4.3 shows owners being those who own (capital, property, and assets ) which in turn they gain profit from their businesses making them a CEO or owner of a factory. Employees do not own capital which in turn is their time and dedication working for a wage in exchange for their mundane life.

Adam Smith’s quote is highlighting labor as the foundation of society. Wealth doesn’t come from money alone, but from human efforts, time and labor which in turn produce goods and services that are needed.

Class being a non-identity is suggestive of being an objective material instead of a subjective cultural label. I can agree with this perspective because your systemic access to wealth and power is directly tied to your outcome in life regardless of what you identify as.

The “close form of dependency” is the owners and workers locked together . Owners won’t make any profit without the labor being exploited and the workers can’t survive without said wages from those same owners. For example, take a major corporation like Amazon. They rely on the warehouse workers heavily to move goods and the workers depend on Amazon for their livelihood.

1. What is ideology?

Ideology is the way we all see the world through our own lens with our beliefs, values and morals. What we choose to believe in shapes us into who we are and what we represent whether people agree or not. When it comes to getting you to stray away from those beliefs, you need fear and ideology. For example, the government uses the police force with threats, the courts and the prisons. When we protest, guess who’s present? The police. When things go wrong and you’re imprisoned, the judge decides your fate with no regard to your ideologies. Anytime you go against social norms and they label you crazy for saying certain beliefs, now you’re a conspiracy theorist which alerts the government. People that do research or become whistleblowers are eliminated or silenced from continuing to speak against the opposition to protect the beliefs that uphold this society we call home. The school systems teach us from young about politics and the areas of socialization, from history glamorizing America to the authority of structure. School just sets us up for the work force that we join at a later time. We have routines and rules we must follow so we can continue to be a law-abiding citizen in this hierarchical society. This is where we learn to function outside of our families. Ideology is just that. A set of beliefs that make you who you are.

2. Conservatives differ from Liberals.

The difference between conservatives and liberal view points in the United States is the conservatives lean more towards a weaker government with less spending which leads to lower taxes, a strong defense and a free market whereas liberals value a bigger government with cuts to military spending and equality.

3. How do I understand Althusser’s definition of Ideology?

The repressive apparatus controls you with the use of courts, prisons and the police whereas ideological apparatuses is the prevention of changing things through school, the media and politics. This keeps the status quo which you maintain control within a society.

1. What is repressive state apparatuses ? Why does he call it repressive?

Repressive state apparatus is how we get controlled through the threats of the police, prison and courts which is violence. This is why its repressive. Its the control and coercion. This repressive outcome only happens when the ideological apparatus fails.

2. The ideological state apparatus is in place to stay which pertains to the media, politics and the schools. An example is the voting process. It gives us the choice to participate in politics without any change. Just remember to not do anything to change this status quo without the proper approval.

3. The repressive and ideological state apparatuses differ from each other because the repressive viewpoint uses control and violence within society after failure from the ideological apparatus. This ideological apparatus focuses on preventing any change to the school and media while keeping people in their place.

4. A picture of my understanding of ideology

This political cartoon of “The Third-Term Panic” (1874) by Thomas Nast.

This political cartoon shows ideological apparatus since it represents the media that citizens should acknowledge this and accept it as belief instead of using violence it plays on the mind. Look at how frantic the animals are thinking its an actual lion on the loose which relates to the public thinking its their own independent thinking but its actually the press manipulating them so they’re there donkey causing havoc. During this time republicans were in fear of losing to the Democratic Party so this structure of dominance had to be upheld. Prior to this the parties didn’t have any mascots so it’s funny how the public can look at themselves and think, “Wow, I’m being frightened like this elephant”. I need to relax and have no fear. This is how you maintain the status quo .