Author: Lorraine Singletary

Basic Filmmaking Terms and Rules

Terms

The Scene : A part of the story in a single location, taking place in uninterrupted time. A scene is created (usually) by cutting several shots together.

The shot: An angle on a scene.

The take: One version of a specific shot.

The cut: In editing, the change of angle.

The sequence: Α series of scenes which form a distinct narrative unit, usually connected either by unity of location or unity of time.

Continuity and the 180 degree rule:

THE CONTINUITY SYSTEM:
A highly standardized system of editing, now virtually universal in commercial film and television but originally associated with Hollywood cinema, that matches spatial and temporal relations from shot to shot in order to maintain continuous and clear narrative action.

Generally speaking, the continuity system aims to present a scene so that the editing is “invisible” (not consciously noticed by the viewer) and the viewer is never distracted by awkward jumps between shots or by any confusion about the spatial lay-out of the scene. Classical editing achieves a “smooth” and “seamless” style of NARRATION, both because of its conventionality (it is “invisible” in part because we are so used to it) and because it employs a number of powerful techniques designed to maximize a sense of spatial and temporal continuity. A key element of the continuity system is the 180 DEGREE RULE.

From “Film Lexicon” by Peter Donaldson

180 Degree Rule:

This rule states the camera must stay on only one side of the actions and objects in a scene. An invisible line, known as the 180 DEGREE LINE or AXIS OF ACTION, runs through the space of the scene. The camera can shoot from any position within one side of that line, but it may never cross it. This convention ensures that the shot will have consistent spatial relations and screen directions. In other words, characters and objects never “flip flop:” if they are on the right side of the screen, they will remain on the right from shot to shot; those on the left will always be on the left.

For example, an actor walking from the left side of the screen to the right will not suddenly, in the next shot, appear to be walking in the opposite direction — a reversal that would strike the viewer, if only fleetingly, as confusing or jarring. With the 180 DEGREE RULE, the viewer rarely experiences even a momentary sense of spatial disorientation. In theory, the camera may move anywhere on one side of the axis of action.

From “Film Lexicon” by Peter Donaldson

Jump cuts or breaking the 30 degree rule:

Hollywood editing typically adheres to the 30 DEGREE RULE, which holds that the camera must move at least 30 degrees between shots. In other words, it is taboo to show one shot and then cut to another shot that is almost the same as the first. If the angle of framing of two adjacent shots is too similar, it creates the appearance that an object is jumping in a staccato burst from one position to another. Although a number of modernist directors take advantage of this effect, called the JUMP CUT, to draw attention to editing, Hollywood editing avoids it for precisely the same reason.

From “Film Lexicon” by Peter Donaldson

What is a shot list?

A shot list is a document that maps out everything that will happen in a scene of a film, or video, by describing each shot within that film or video. It serves as a kind of checklist, providing the project with a sense of direction and preparedness for the film crew. It is typically made in collaboration with the director, cinematographer, and even first assistant director. Shot lists are especially critical in managing and preparing for film scenes. Making a movie demands knowledge of shot type, camera movement, lighting, actor staging, and much more. Putting this information down in a shot list helps the filmmakers remember what it is they wanted, and how to execute.

Example of a simple shot list

1. ES of students taking final with Professor walking back and forth.
2. MCU of bad student with headphones on bobbing her head back and forth.
3. WS of Professor telling bad student to take headphones off.
4. MCU bad student tries to cheat on phone, Professor takes phone away.
5. 2 Shot bad student tries to cheat off good student who refuses.
6. WS Professor yells at them for talking.

Example of Low Key Lighting

Example of High Key Lighting

Three Point Lighting

In essence, three-point lighting is a technique or lighting setup where a subject in a scene is illuminated from three different points by three light sources. It is more of a guidance for positioning your light sources to illuminate your subject and scene than a formula or predetermined standard. This lighting setup can help create a particular mood.

In this setup you have three distinct lights or light positions;

1. The Key Light
2. The Fill Light
3. The Backlight

Key Light

The key light is the brightest light in your scene and your major source of illumination. The key light light will influence how well your scene and subject are exposed overall. It is often placed in front of the subject and off to one side (45-degree angle) to add depth and dimension. The shadows cast create depth and dimension when the object is off-center in relation to your subject. The placement of your key light is essential since it determines the tone of your scene.

Fill Light

The fill light fills in the shadows that the key light leaves on a subject, bringing out details in the shadows. The fill light is opposite the key light at a 45-degree angle. Cinematographers can influence the overall mood of their shots by adjusting how much fill light to use. The fill light is often less bright than the key light. However, the fill light doesn’t have to be a light source; it can also be a wall, a bounce card, a reflector, or anything else that reflects light back onto the subject to reduce the shadows. The fill light creates the ambiance of a scene along with the key light.

Backlight

The backlight, the third source in triangular lighting, shines on a subject from behind and completes the setup. It is also referred to as the “rim light” or the “hair light.” This separates the subject from the background and gives them depth by creating a rim of light or outline around their head. The backlight is typically set up behind the subject and high enough to be out of the frame, opposite the key light, and aimed at the subject’s  head.

Working With Minimal Lights

Work with the available light. Depending on you shooting atmosphere use the sun, a reflector, or whatever lights you have.

Use of a Reflector
The reflector acts like a fill light: it bounces some light back toward the dense shadow areas and slows down falloff.

Use the Sun
You can use the window light as a back light or even a key. For example, when using the window as a back light, you need to position the subject in such a way that the light strikes from the side and back; then position the key light and the camera.

There wouldn’t be film without film lighting. Lighting is as crucial to cinematic storytelling as a script and a subject, and filmmakers have experimented with different lumination techniques for as long as the medium has existed.

If you want to produce professional-looking video you need to know at least the basic principles of lighting.

Good lighting calls for intentional illumination.

Color Temperature

• When all three primary colors overlap Red Green Blue (RGB) you get white.
• The standard by which we measure the relative reddishness or bluishness of white light is called color temperature.
• Color temperature is measured in Kelvin (K) scale.
• The more bluish the white light looks the higher the color temperature. (Daylight)
• The more reddish, the lower the color temperature. (Indoor)

Color Temperature Standard

5,600K Daylight – outdoors, bluish light

3,200K Indoor – warmer more reddish light

White Balance – You need to white balance a camera because not all light sources produce light of the same degree of whiteness.

A candle produces a more reddish light.

Midday sun gives off more of a bluish light

Types of Light

Directional Light: Precise beam that causes shadows.

Diffused Light: Soft light, its beam spreads out quickly and illuminates a large area.

Quality of Light – How it affects your subject, how the light behaves.

The distance of the light from the subject can create soft or hard shadows.

Diffusion of light can soften it.

Soft light is light that is diffused before hitting the subject. Soft light tends to “wrap” around objects, creating diffused shadows with soft edges.

Hard light hits the subject directly from the source. Hard light is more focused and produces harsher shadows.

For example: An overcast day produces soft light (clouds act as diffusion). A sunny day produces harsh shadows.

Light Intensity

A light meter is used to measure light intensity or how much light falls onto an object. It measures the contrast between light and dark areas.

Contrast: The difference between the brightest and darkest spots in a video.

Baselight: Available light in the room.

Shadows:  Shadow control is an important part of lighting. Shadows can influence our perception. There are two main types of shadows attached and cast.

Attached shadows – Attached to the subject.

Cast shadows – Can be seen independent of the object causing them.

High Key Lighting – is a lighting style that results in a brightly lit frame with even lighting, minimal shadows, and low contrast.

Low Key Lighting – accentuates shadows, high contrast, and dark tones. The visual aesthetic of low-key lighting is usually achieved by using hard sources or key lights with minimal to no fill light.

Gels
Thin, plastic, colored sheets placed in front of a light source to manipulate the color temperature.

Reflector
Any material used to “bounce” light from the source onto the subject.

Quiz 1 Review

Production Cycle

1. What are the 3 phases of the production cycle?

Pre Production, Production, Post Production

2. What happens during the Pre-Production Phase?

Planning, Budgeting, Location Scouting, Hiring

3. What are some key crew positions?

Director, Director of Photographer (DP)/Cinematographer, Writer, Producer, Location Scout, Gaffer(Electric Dept), Grips (move equipment), Wardrobe Dept, Hair, Makeup, Props, etc.

4. Who is responsible for the look of the film?

Director of Photography (DP) / Cinematographer

Image Formation

1. Who invented the first movie cameras?

Thomas Edison and William Kennedy Dickson invented the first early motion picture camera.

2. How are images formed?

Light that bounces off an  object passes through the lens, that light is turned into an electrical charge that hits the camera’s video sensor. This results in the camera’s video image.

3. What are the two scanning cycles that form an image?

The scanning cycle is either “progressive or interlaced.

4. What is Progressive scanning?

Pixels are scanned from left to right from the top to the bottom completing a video image.

5. What is Interlaced scanning?

Pixels are scanned by every other line (skips a line), reading only the odd numbers. The next scan reads the even numbers and a complete picture is produced.

SD VS HD

In video or digital photography, the resolution is the ability of a video or digital camera to record details, such as the number of pixels and their size.

SD is 480 or below.

HD is 720 and above.

Camera Lens

1. What are the 3 types of lens (focal lengths)?

Wide (wide angle of view, landscapes), Normal (see how the eye see), Telephoto (objects appear closer than they are, zoom in).

2. What is “Focal Length?”

The distance from the lens to the image plane.

3. What is a “Zoom” lens?

Lens that can change the focal length (zoom

in or out).

4. What is a “Prime” lens?

Fixed focal length, does not zoom in or out.

5. What is Depth of Field?

The distance between the closest and farthest objects in a photo that is in focus.

6. What affects the Depth of Field?

The focal length, f-stop, and the distance from the camera to the subject.

7. What is the Aperture and f-stop?

The opening of a lens. The smaller the ƒ-stop number, the larger the aperture allowing more light into the camera.

8. What are some benefits of a Tripod?

A tripod is a three-legged stand designed to support a camera. A major benefit is stabilized footage (no shaky footage). Additionally the tripod also allows the camera to pan left and right or tilt up and down.

A quick-release plate allows the camera to be mounted on and off the tripod quickly.

The level bubble in the back ensures the camera is leveled.

Analog vs Digital

1. What is an Analog?

An electrical copy of the original  stimulus. The signal is continuous. Ex, film cameras, old televisions, audio cassette tapes, vhs tapes, old land-line telephones, your voice.

2. What is Digital?

Digital is a series of 1’s and 0’s. A digital signal is discontinuous. Digital signals can be compressed, and analog signals cannot. Ex, digital cameras, computers, digital phones,.

Camera Shots

The most common shot sizes in filmmaking

1. Extreme close-up (ECU)
2. Close-up (CU)
3. Medium close-up shot (MCU)
4. Medium shot (MS)
5. Medium wide shot (MWS)
6. Cowboy shot
7. Wide shot (WS) or Full shot (FS)
8. Extreme wide shot (EWS)
9. Establishing shot (ES)
10. Over the shoulder (OTS)
11. 2 Shot (Two subjects in the frame)
12. Low Angle
13. High Angle

Audio and Sound Control: Microphones

Audio is important, audio not only conveys information but adds aesthetic energy and structure to video.

How do microphones hear?

Microphones convert sound waves into electrical audio signals.

Microphones are categorized in three different ways, how well they hear, how they are made and how they are used.

Microphones hear sound in different ways.

Pickup Pattern – the zone within which a microphone can hear well.

Most microphones used in video production are either omnidirectional or unidirectional.

Omnidirectional – Mic hears well from all directions.

Unidirectional – Hears well from one direction, the front.

The most common unidirectional pattern is a cardioid microphone pattern. Cardioid pattern mics capture sound in the shape of a small heart-shaped circle in front of the mic.

There are two additional types of cardioid pickup patterns that are common in video production: supercardioid and hypercardioid. These polar patterns are commonly used in shotgun mics.

Microphones are made in different ways.

A Dynamic Mic – Rugged, can withstand rough handling.

A Condenser Mic – More sensitive, needs power/phantom power.

Ribbon – high quality, very sensitive, not used in film production that much.

How mics are used.

Lavalier microphones: Usually omnidirectional, small, rugged, high quality sound, and usually clipped to clothing.

Hand microphones:  Unidirectional, handled by talent/performers.

Boom microphone( shotgun mic) : Kept out of the picture. Because it’s further away from talent, usually a hypercardioid or supercardioid mic is used.

Audio Tools

An audio mixer – Amplifies weak signals, and mix two or more sources.

XLR- Cable for professional microphones and camcorders.

Camera Movements

A change in frame or perspective is produced by the camera moving. Directors and cinematographers can change the audience’s point of view without cutting by using camera movement. The audience might be psychologically and emotionally affected by particular camera movements. A movie can use these effects to become more compelling and immersive.

Pan

The camera pan directs a camera horizontally left or right. The pan camera movement is typically achieved with a tripod head, but can also be done handheld or with a stabilizer.

Pans are often motivated by a character’s actions. They can also be used to reveal new information to the audience.

Tilt

Camera tilts are just like pans, only vertical. Tilt camera movements direct a camera upward or downward. Camera tilts can be used to give a character dominance in a shot or to reveal new information to the audience. Tilts enable filmmakers to capture the verticality of a film in moments of awe and spectacle.

Dolly In / Out

A dolly-in moves the camera closer to a subject typically with a dolly camera movement or Steadicam. Push-ins can draw the audience’s attention toward a specific detail. Filmmakers also push-in toward characters to try and infer what is occurring internally. This can be a reaction, thought process, or internal conflict.

The camera dolly out is the exact opposite of the dolly in. A dolly out is a smooth camera movement that moves the camera further away from a subject. This movement causes the subject to grow smaller while simultaneously revealing their surroundings.

Dolly outs can be used to reveal setting and characters. Emotionally, dolly outs can highlight a character’s isolation or loneliness. 

Zoom

Although zooms are technically not a camera movement they do create movement within the image. Zooms change the focal length of a camera lens to either zoom in (magnify) or zoom out (de-magnify) the size of a subject in the frame. 

Zooms are unique because there is no equivalent to it in the experience of the human eye. Zooms can feel artificial or even unnatural. For these reasons, zooms are one of the best camera movements to use in horrors and thrillers.

Tracking shot

A tracking shot is any shot that physically moves the camera through the scene for an extended amount of time. Tracking camera movement often follows a traveling subject, though they can be used to simply show off the scene.

Descriptions from https://www.studiobinder.com/blog/different-types-of-camera-movements-in-film/

Trucking shot

Similar to tracking or dollying, trucking is essentially the same. It may have slightly varied meanings to various people, but in general, it denotes  side-to-side camera movement in relation to the action.

Pedestal

Pedestal means to raise or lower the camera on a tripod or studio pedestal’s central column.

Crane

Crane shots are used with a camera mounted on an upward-and-downward-moving jib. A crane shot often hovers around in the air. The crane shot enables the viewer to depart from a conventional point of view and creates a fresh viewpoint that is naturally cinematic.

Camera Movements: an introduction, with examples and explanations. CLICK HERE

Shot Sizes

What is shot size?

The expression “shot size” describes the relationship of the frame’s size to its content. The shot size basically establishes how much of your subject or environment is seen in each given shot. The scene’s rhythm and visual language are influenced by the combination of various shot sizes.

Elements of Image Composition

FRAMING A SHOT
The most fundamental concerns regarding framing a shot are how much area you include in the frame, the proximity the subject seems to the viewer, where to set the object relative to the screen boundaries, and how to make viewers perceive the entire thing. These elements are known as image composition.

RULE OF THIRDS

The Rule of Thirds is a visual composition method involving utilizing two horizontal and two vertical lines to divide an image into thirds. With four crossing points, this hypothetical grid produces nine segments. Theoretically, you could achieve a far more interesting-looking composition by placing the most crucial components of it at these intersections.

Some of the most basic compositional factors involve subject placement; head room, and lead room; and the horizon line.

HEAD ROOM

When framing your subject, you should also take head room into account. The head room is the distance between a person’s head and the top of the frame. If you give them too much room, the person will look to be drowning in quicksand. On the other hand, if you don’t give them enough space, the person will appear at risk of hitting their head at the top of the frame. Providing proper head room for a subject balances the shot composition. You will provide suitable head room if you place the subject’s eyes on the imagined top third line.

LEAD ROOM

Lead room or look-room is the blank space between the subject and the frame’s edge. To put it another way, it’s about framing what isn’t in the frame, which is crucial when filming people. It is our natural impulse to follow someone’s gaze to find out what they are looking at, whether in the street or on a large screen. Therefore, it is unsettling for the viewers when a character is placed at the edge of a frame and looking off the edges of the screen.