1. M-C-M’ is the movement of exchange after capitalist enters. In the diagram M-C-M’, a capitalist starts with money (M), uses it to buy commodities (C), and then ends up with more money (M’). The goal is not to buy things to use, but to make more money than they started with.

The extra money comes from workers labor. Workers are paid wages that cover their essentials, but during the workday they produce more value than what they’re paid. For example, if a worker produces enough value in four hours to cover their daily wage (necessary labor time), but works eight hours total, the additional four hours create surplus value. The surplus value belongs to the capitalist. This unpaid labor is the source of their profit.

Capiatlists maintain and increase their wealth by repeating this cycle. They invest money, make a profit from surplus labor, and then reinvest to make even more. Overall, money is invested to purchase labor power and means of production, labor creates more value than it costs, and the difference or surplus value becomes their profit. They could also increase profit by extending the work day by increasing the work hours to 10 or 12 or by increasing productivity so that necessary labor time shrinks. Either way, by continuously investing the surplus, capitalist maintain and expand their wealth over time.

1. From my understanding, the means of production are the tools and resources needed to make a product. This includes machines, buildings, land and materials. For example, in a coffee shop, the espresso machine, the store, and the coffee beans are all means of production. Labor is the work people do, physical or mental effort. For example, the barista making drinks or the cashier helping customers is labor. Workers do the labor, but they do not own the business or equipment.
2. Based on the ideas presented in Video 5.1, value comes from labor. Something is valuable because people put time and effort into making it. Value is based on the average amount of time it normally takes to produce something. If one worker works faster than others, that does not change the value because value is based on average production time.
3. Labor and value are directly connected because labor creates value. Nothing would be made without workers using their skills and efforts. According to Marx, workers usually create more value than what they are paid for. The extra money made from their work becomes profit for the business owners.
4. Labor is the actual work someone does. Labor power, the ability to work, is in Marxist economics, the most important commodity in the world. Laborers do not sell their labor, they sell their labor power for a wage. They sell their ability to work for a certain number of hours. The important part is that labor power can produce more value than it costs to pay for it.
5. Surplus value is the extra value created by laborers that they do not get paid for. Essentially that surplus goes to the owners as profit. For example, an overworked salesperson who brings in thousands of dollars in sales but only earns a small salary or commission. The extra money created from their work is profit for the company and owners. This concept is important for understanding social class because it shows how business owners become wealthier and how workers stay dependent on wages. It explains why there is conflict between classes in the capiatlist system.

1. In Reading 4.3, Parenti explains that the main difference between owners and employees is how they earn their income. Owners make their money from property, investments, stocks, and businesses they control. The owning class typically has very large income that majority comes from the labor of other people (employees). They do not need to work for someone else to survive because their wealth generates income for them. Employees do not own property that create profit, so they have to sell their labor in exchange for wages or a salary. Employees live off of wages, salaries and bonuses. Parenti also mentions that the distinction is not dependent on how much a person makes. Managers and professionals who earn a high income are still employees, regardless of earning a lot they still depend on a paycheck. For example, a major corporate shareholder who lives off investments would be considered an owner or apart of the owning class. A teacher, nurse, or construction worker who earns paychecks and salaries would be considered an employee. The difference is whether a person lives off their ownership or off their labor.
2. The Adam Smith quote is basically saying that labor is what is responsible for the wealth in society. Workers are the ones responsible for producing goods and services, and without their work the economy would not function properly because their would be nothing to exchange or sell. Parenti then goes on to explain in further detail how trees are turned into profitable products such as paper or furniture, by gathering, harvesting, manufacturing , shipping and selling as well as the tools and everything else needed for consumption. Without workers performing these task there would be no products or profit.
3. Heideman argues that class is not an identity like gender or race. I understand this to mean that class is not just something you label yourself as but based on your position in the capitalist system. It depends on whether you own wealth and businesses or of you have to work for wages to live. I think that his argument is valid because even if someone does not personally identify as “working class” if they are dependent on a paycheck then the are still apart if that class. Class is about power and structure not just personal identity.
4. When Heideman says that class structures are built around a close form of dependency, I believe he means that workers depend on employers for income and employers depends on workers to make product and profit. This dependency is unequal because workers need wages to survive, while employers control the business and have more power. This creates a system where workers are dependent on those who own property and companies. For example, a fast food worker depends on their job for rent and bills. At the same time, the restaurant owner depends on workers to keep the restaurant running and to continue making money. Yet the owner has more control over the workers wages and working conditions, which demonstrates how class creates unequal power in these relationships.

1. One similarity I’ve notice about the way social classes are discussed in both readings is that they both connect social class to income and socioeconomic factors. In “What Determines how Americans perceive their social class”, it states that income, education, occupation, and wealth influence how Americans identify their social class. In ” Inequality and New York’s Subway”, the median income levels along the subway stops show the discrepancies throughout the neighborhoods. Both readings show that money plays a huge role in defining social class, rather it be perceived by themselves or others. These two readings have multiple ways they differentiate between social classes. In “What determines how Americans perceive their social class”, addresses subjective social class. Subjective social class is how people perceive their own social class. It shows that many Americans identify themselves as being in different classes, regardless of their income placing them in a different category. In ” Inequality and New York’s Subway”, focuses on income inequality between different boroughs in New York City. It shows the income gaps between subway stops (essentially every few blocks)and across different boroughs.
2. The station closest to where I reside is Rockaway Ave. My neighborhood would be considered lower-middle and working class. I am not surprised by this classification because the area mostly consist of working families, apartment buildings, some public housing and limited “luxury” developments. I feel it is not an accurate representation of the people living in my neighborhood because the statistic does not reflect all. While the area has hard working class residents, there are also many new residents, with different economic backgrounds moving to the area.
3. NYC shows clear geographic inequality, with wealth concentrated in certain neighborhoods and lower-income communities in others. The subway map demonstrates how income can shift dramatically within just a few stops(few minutes apart).It shows that social class in NYC are closely connected to location. Wealth and poverty exist as class as just a few stops.

1. Repressive state apparatus is the idea that people are controlled through fear in order to regulate their actions and behaviors. Althusser calls it repressive because it relies on force, punishment, or the threat of violence to make people comply with societal rules. Repressive state apparatus controls people directly rather than through beliefs. An example of repressive state apparatus is a police officer arresting someone who breaks the law, using force or threat of force to enforce the law.
2. Ideological state apparatus controls people through the way they think rather than through force. It works by shaping beliefs and thoughts so that people behave a certain way because they believe its what they are “supposed to do”. Instead of being forced, people follow the rule willingly in order to be seen as non problematic, acceptable or normal. A clear example of this is a student behaving in class because that is what a ” good student” is expected to do, without any threats or force. Schools are an important ideological state apparatus because they teach students not only academic subjects, but also discipline, obedience,and social expectation. Shaping behavior long before repressive state apparatus is needed.
3. Repressive state apparatus and ideological state apparatus differ in how they control people. Repressive state apparatus relies on force, punishment,and threats such as arrest or imprisonment, to force people to comply. Ideological state apparatus works by shaping beliefs so that people follow rules willingly and without realization that they are being controlled. While ideological encourages people to comply on their own, repressive state are used when people defy or resist.
4. An example of ideology can be viewed in the film The Notebook, there is a scene where Noah leaves and joins the army and Allie goes to medical school. Both characters follow these paths because they believe it is what they are supposed to do based on social expectations, class and individual responsibility. This represents ideological state apparatus because their behavior is guided by inner beliefs shaped by society rather than force or threat.

(a) From my understanding, ideology is a social construct that shapes people of different races, classes and ethnicities understand how society is supposed to function. It influences how people think, behave, and make sense of their position in the world. Ideology often mirrors the interests of those with the most power by justifying existing social arrangements and making them seem fair. To me, ideology gives meaning and justification to social rules and inequalities in ways that makes sense to whoever the ideas benefit.
(b) An example of this is the belief that society is fair and that people end up exactly where they deserve solely based on their own effort. Many people are taught if they work hard enough and “follow the rules”, they will succeed and that if they struggle, its at no one’s fault but their own. This belief ignores factors like unequal access to education, low wages and class difference. This ideology benefits those with power because it makes inequality seem justified and discouraged people from questioning a failing system.

(c) Ideology originally developed as a Marxist idea that explained how beliefs were formed and maintained in feudal societies, influencing everyone from peasants to kings and priests. Ideology mirrors the interest of the highest class and justified the rulings that kept them in power. The lower class did not challenge the ruling because ideology made the system seem natural and normal, limiting the awareness that any other alternatives were possible. In the twentieth century, ideology took a similar meaning, even without feudalism, because people still believe they are supposed to act, think and behave in a certain manner within society. Instead of the churches providing the “rules and guidelines” to follow, institutions such as elementary and secondary schools now play a huge role in shaping beliefs, values, and behaviors. Because of this, I understand ideology as not just a set of ideas, but an ongoing process that shapes how people see themselves, their choices, and what they believe is possible within society.

2. In American Politics, conservatives are generally on the right side of the spectrum, while liberals are on the left. The main difference and dividing line between the two has to do with the amount of government involvement and individual responsibility. Conservatives believe that the larger the government becomes, the more it poses a threat to individual freedom. Because of this, they prefer limited government involvement in order to maximize individual freedom and personal responsibility. American liberals believe that a larger government can help solve more social and economic problems. Liberals believe the government should intervene in the economy, especially to help minorities and others who are at disadvantage. Lastly, liberals are more focused on how the government can step in to protect people and reduce inequality.

3. Althusser defines ideology as something that causes people to act against their own interest while believing what they are doing is normal or fair. He argues that ideology is important for social critique because it helps explain why people accept systems that do not benefit them. Althusser believes that there are two types of apparatuses that control behavior, repressive state apparatus and ideological state apparatus. Repressive state apparatus control people through fear or threat of violence, such as police, courts and prisons. The other apparatus controls how people think rather than through direct force, ideological state apparatus. Ideological apparatus make people believe that they are supposed to act a certain way in order to be accepted by society. This encourages people to stay in line without the need of punishment. When ideological apparatus state fails and people defy or rebel, repressive is used to discipline them.

Althusser describes schools as the most important ideological state apparatus. He argues that no other institutions demands as much consistent attention for as long as eight hours a day, five days a week. Students behave in school because they believe that is what they are supposed to do, but those who do not follow the rules are punished through detention, suspension, or expulsion. Althusser states the purpose of schools is not only to teach subjects like math, science and history, but most importantly to teach discipline and obedience. Schools produce non-confrontational, submissive, and obedient workers that can function within a capitalist system.