P. Williams writes in her essay, that the war on terror is a new type of a war. What’s new about it, how is it different from traditional wars?

1. P. Williams emphasizes the structure of new wars compared to traditional, focusing on their legal, ideological, and uniqueness in her writing. With terrorism comes harsher laws without the application of usual evidence and rights. We move from wars in fixed locations to wars without national borders, which leads to complications of military engagement and accountability. Paranoia is instilled and once civil people follow their fears and are more likely to agree with the new harshness of the war on terror.
   
   In what ways does the “Roving Wiretaps” of the Patriot Act seem to violate the Bill of Rights? Which amendment(s) does it seem to violate and why?
   
2. The “Roving Wiretaps” of the patriot act violates the Bill of Rights Fourth amendment. This amendment protects people from unreasonable searches and seizures by the government, while the wiretaps go against this as they do not need a warrant to commit it. This can even affect anyone who comes into casual contact with a suspect invading their right to privacy.
   
   What about “Sneak and Peek” Warrants?
   
3. “Sneak and peek” warrants also violate the Fourth amendment as they allow delayed and covert searches. This goes against the unreasonable searches and seizures the amendment protects. If the law suspects you of a crime, they may commit any convert searches of your personal property without the need of notifying you.
   

Describe how you understand the “Establishment Clause” and the related “Lemon Test”.

1. My understanding of the “Establishment Clause” and the related “Lemon Test” is as such; both were created to separate religion from being used by the government. The Establishment Clause prohibits the creation or promotion of state-sponsored religions. This prevents any state from forcing its citizens to follow a religion of their choosing. With the Lemon Test, its main goal is to decide whether a law or other government action that might promote a particular religious practice should be allowed to stand. This helps prevent laws from advancing religious practice and halt government entanglement with religion.
   
   Is burning the US flag protected by the First Amendment? Explain by referring to the relevant court case discussed in the reading.
   
2. The burning of the flag is considered a protected freedom of the first amendment as long as it pertains to a method of free speech. The first case that challenged this concept was Texas v. Johnson, which was won in favor of it being a symbolic way of expressing speech. Gregory Lee Johnson, who was a member of various pro-communist and anti-war groups, set the flag on fire while at a protest near the Republican National Convention in Dallas, Texas. The courts ruled that his actions were part of his right to freedom of speech.
   
   What does it mean when someone says “I’m taking the Fifth”?
   
3. When using the term “taking the Fifth”, you are using your right to remain silent, as this is a protection against self-incrimination. As people have the right not to give evidence in court, or to law enforcement officers, that might constitute an admission of guilt.

Describe the primary differences in the role of citizens in government, among the federal, confederation, and unitary systems.

1. The primary differences in the role of citizens in the government are as such: in the federal system all systems established in which there are two of, are elected by the people and each level is assigned different functions. An example of one of these systems is the national government, which is responsible for handling matters that affect the country as a whole, and defending the nation against foreign threats is one example of this. The unitary system, on the other hand, makes subnational governments dependent on the national government. A central authority has the most power, and local governments are limited in power. Citizens in this system have less influence on governance and play almost no role in who is elected. Finally, in a confederation, authority is decentralized and the central government’s ability to act depends on the consent of the subnational governments. States have more power here while the national government is subordinate and weak. Citizens have more influence here through their state governments and have a more direct impact on decisions made. This system maximizes regional self-rule at the expense of effective national governance.
   
   Briefly explain how you understand the system of division of power.
   
2. My understanding of the system of division of power is that it is a system in which the authority of the government and its people is not held by one singular power. It is split between branches to create a balance.
   
   How does the federal government shape the actions of state and local governments? Write your answer based on doing a bit of research on how the federal government has influenced the actions of NY state and local governments, during the COVID-19 pandemic.
   
3. During the Covid-19 pandemic, the federal government shaped the NY state and local governments by creating financial and regulatory boundaries, as well as providing much-needed critical resources, although this tended to be very inconsistent at times. The aftermath of the federal government’s involvement created lasting changes. As an example, funding for community health centers and language-access programs is becoming permanent, with stricter health guidelines and a better understanding of resource competition and NY’s vulnerabilities during pandemics.

What concept that we have already discussed does “faction” remind you of?

1. Faction reminds me of the concept of social class. The idea of a faction is when a number of citizens, whether amounting to a majority or minority of the whole, become united by some common impulse of passion or of interest. Social class is similar in the sense that individuals are separated into a majority or minority group and are united by similar interests. The wealthy group with the wealthy, the working class are grouped with the working class and so on.
   
   According to Federalist #10 (written by James Madison), what is the source of wealth (private property)? What factor explains why some people get to possess wealth by owning private property, and others don’t (thus remaining poor)?
   
2. According to Federalist #10, sources of wealth are the faculties of men, which allow them to own property. Faculties are the abilities and rights to acquire properly which naturally have differing interests and opinions. They use whatever abilities and means to gain wealth and build open their expanse of property. The wealthy can share information, gather information on ways to continue to gain more capital, advantages the working class do not have. The poor, not being able to afford to learn or grow, stay stagnant and stuck in jobs that barely cover living expenses.
   
   Do you agree with this explanation of wealth and poverty?
   
3. I do agree with this explanation of wealth and poverty. The wealthy have the ability to obtain their own property while those in poverty struggle to even hold on to what they already have. The wealthy do not want the poor to own property. Instead, they wish to use their need for it to help them continue to gain more wealth.
   
   What is the core mission (“first object”) of the US government? Does this surprise you, does it sound different from what our society today seems to suggest the core mission of the government is? Explain.
   
4. The mission or “first object” of the US government is the protection of the faculties of men. I am not surprised by this, as the government as well as the constitution were created and run by wealthy individuals with goals that aligned with their own freedoms and wealth. This is no different in society today: the government is still run by the wealthy and their goals still align with benefiting just the wealthy.
   
   Given the discussion in questions 1-4, are you surprised that Federalist #10 is not in favor of democracy, and supports a Republican (representative) form of government? Why would d the author dislike a (pure) democratic form of government?
   
5. I am not surprised that Federalist #10 is not in favor of democracy and supports a republican form of government. The author would dislike a pure democratic form of government as it only consists of a few citizens who assemble and administer the government in person who bring no cure for the mischiefs of a faction. A Republic, on the other hand, opens a different prospect and promises a cure. Democracy builds around the wealthy and focuses solely on the wealthy, while a republican focuses on the people as a whole.

Based on the arguments presented in Readings 6.1 and 6.2, which social class wrote the Constitution, and which class was excluded and not allowed to participate in this process? In your comment, make sure you clearly specify the difference between the two classes by giving examples from the readings.

1. Based on the arguments presented in readings 6.1 and 6.2 a wealthy class labeled “gentlemen” wrote the constitution and excluded the working class. By their definition, you had to have ownership over a specified amount of property as well as, depending on the state, have a worth of more than $1,000. An example of these wealthy “gentlemen” were those who held seats in legislation, such as governors and senators. The majority of individuals who were excluded are all those who lacked sufficient property. As an example, this mostly consisted of people of color, indentured servants and even white males.
   
   Would say that the social class structure of early United States society, was the same as ours today, or different? Explain
   
2. The social class structure of early United States society compared to our current definitely differs. The gap between the wealthy, middle, and the working class has expanded even further, making it more difficult for them to obtain a standard of living. An example of this would be how the middle class used to have proper access to healthcare, housing, and essential services now struggling to obtain stability in these factors just as the working-class.
   
   Why were the people who wrote the Constitution so afraid of democracy? Hint: think about how to answer this question by discussing it in terms of social classes.
   
3. The people who wrote the constitution were afraid of democracy due to what they called the insurgent spirit. They felt the over-abundance of working-class individuals would band together and create anarchy. The working class held the majority as the wealthy capitalist class continued to reap the benefits of their work and slowly became more of the minority. As such, they wanted to focus on strengthening the national government instead of the people to keep away the idea of despotism, which is when a single individual rules with absolute power from them.
   

Which statistic on wealth inequality in the US (discussed on p. 29) made the biggest impression on you? Explain why?

1. The statistic: The top 1 percent own between 40 and 50 percent of the nation’s total wealth. More than that, the combined wealth of the bottom 90 percent made the biggest impression on me. This statement shows how really vast the gap in wealth really is compared to my understanding of what I believed it was. This not only gives me more insight into my perspective but a better understanding of the notion that you are either born rich or you are born poor.
   
   What could be some of the implications of living in a society that has such huge wealth inequalities? Do you see this dynamic getting played out in everyday life in our society? How so? Example?
   
   2) Some of the implications of living in a society that has such huge wealth inequalities are such: the rich control the rate of technological development and the availability of livelihoods. The working-class individual will have less and less of a choice in the environments they wish to live and work in, while the rich continue to buy land, resources and push out who they consider a lower class than they are. I do see this dynamic getting played out in everyday life in society. Business owners will take advantage of the working class, knowing they need the jobs and money just to get through the day to day. Workers deal with bosses or business owners berating them and threats of unemployment. As for the rich, you are easily replaceable.

Explain M-C-M’ to show how capitalists maintain and increase their wealth.
1)  A capitalist remains wealthy through the process of M-C-M’ or Money-commodity-M’,and the labor of the working class. A working-class individual will put in the necessary time and labor power to do their job, whether that be creating a commodity such as building computers or selling a commodity like a retail worker selling clothing at a store. The capitalist will then profit off of this by either buying the commodity at a low cost and re-selling it at a higher cost or benefiting off the surplus value created by the worker. The clothing store, for example, will outsource and have their designs made for a cheaper price while they sell them for higher using Money – to buy the Commodity – to sell and make more M’oney. Capitalists will also gain money through surplus value, which can be slightly exploitative.

Two key concepts in this video are the means of production and labor. In your comment, explain how you understand the means of production and labor. Give an example of each.

1. Means of production, to my understanding, are the tools, whether owned or not, that are used for the production of goods or services. The camera equipment, editing software that the creator owns, as well as the website used to upload his video are a good example of the tools used for his means of production. Labor, in my understanding, is the amount of work and kind of work that goes into creating a product whose value is measured by the amount of work that goes into creating that product. A good example of this is the amount of labor that’s created when turning wood into furniture; woodworkers cut down the trees, which are then driven to a factory, and in turn factory workers work the machines that help shape and cut it into furniture.
   
   Another important concept in understanding social class is value. Based on the ideas presented in Video 5.1, what is value?  What give “value” to value, what makes something valuable? 
   
2. Based on the ideas presented in video 5.1, value gains its “value” through what is called labor power. This is defined by the ability to work, and the effort created to get a person to work. The food, rest, and items in your life that fuel your labor power to work a 9-5 for the means of production of your company or boss is what gives value its “value”. Companies can put a price on their goods based on your work, and what it takes to get you to commit to that work. An example would be a barista who makes coffee drinks; the value would be how the drink tastes and its quality.
   
   How are labor and value related? What’s the relationship/connection between the two?
   
3. Labor and value go hand in hand as labor creates value. The value of a good or service is heavily dependent on the labor it takes to create it. A person who puts in the labor to create custom-crocheted scarfs can place a value on the item higher than that of one that comes from a factory, as their labor is considered more strenuous since they do not have the machinery to assist them.
   
   How do you understand the difference between labor and labor power? Hint: this is a key difference, give it your best shot based on what the video says about it, and your own ideas. We’ll clarify and develop it in our discussions, and in my video comments.
   
4. The difference between Labor and Labor power, in my understanding, is as such: Labor is the effort and work created by an individual to produce goods and services. Labor power, on the other hand, is the amount of effort you can create to do the necessary labor. The working class has to sell the ability of their value to work for the capitalist to make the necessary money to survive. As it’s a specific act of a working-class person to work and a set amount of time for wealthy people, the source of value for a person is essentially the amount of labor going into you toward the amount of labor coming out of you.
   
   Surplus Value: what is it? Why is it important to know about, in our study of social classes? Think about an example of surplus value?
   
5. Surplus value is the excess value created on top of the value it took you to get to work, which is your labor power. As an example, if you create labor power to maintain 4 hours’ worth of work but are working a 9-5, your boss gets the extra 4 hours out of you as a surplus value. It is important to understand this, as this surplus value does not come to you, but instead it is profit for your boss. They will make more of your effort than you will, which can be seen as very exploitative.

Do you notice any similarities in the way social class is discussed in readings 4.1 and 4.2? Do you notice any differences in the way these two readings DIFFERENTIATE between social classes?

1) I unfortunately do not have access to the 4.2 reading. As for reading 4.1, social classes are based on where groups of people fall on with how much income is made. The social class divides people into five classes, but with how the economy is going, the middle class is facing the challenges those in the lower class had to endure. There are many factors that can play a role in where people in society stand in social class. Education is one of the important assets to have, as the society we live in today defines that as your worth, which results in the income made. Over time, social class has negatively impacted many; it has become such a big gap between upper and middle class that many are questioning how earning a livable wage has become increasingly difficult that it’s been affecting even those in middle class.

Pick the station closest to where you live. Using the concepts from Reading 4.1, what social class tends to live in your neighborhood? Are you surprised (or not) by the answer? Do you feel it is an accurate representation of the people living in your neighborhood?

2) The concepts from reading 4.1 are that the social class that lives in my neighborhood would be lower and working class. I am not surprised by the answer, as the economy that is currently being lived through has made earning a living a lot more challenging. I do believe it is an accurate representation of the people living in my neighborhood, as the area I reside in unfortunately struggles to get the necessary assistance to give those struggling a stepping stone to be able to meet their physiological needs.

Based on Reading 4.2, do you notice a general pattern about social classes in NYC?

3) The general pattern of social classes in NYC has changed over time as division is still in place. It began with how much income was made in different social groups to an individual’s worth relating to their status, education, age, and strategy. The areas, such as different parts of a borough, are a good example of how divided and separated we are as a society because of where one stands in social class. An example of this would be the transit system, while riding the train many know who will be getting off before what stop and how the environment changes as it goes further into the borough.

What is the distinction that Reading 4.3 makes between owners and employees? Give an example of each.

1. The distinction that the reading 4.3 makes between owners and employees is such: owners are the very rich families; they live off investments such as stocks, bonds, rents, mineral royalties, and other property income. An example of owners can come from owners of giant corporations such as Target or even those who own small businesses such as diners. Another example would be corporate real estate, where owners own their wealth by making money from their workers running their business. As surplus money and extra money for income owners wealth are preserved, over time it increases. Owners can start a business, buy a business, and own a business they own their wealth. Employees, on the other hand, live off wages, salaries, and fees. They are the workers of these large corporations and small businesses and play no part in ownership. Fast food workers, baristas, cashiers, or even factory workers are a good example of this. Another example would be labor for money, meaning workers don’t really own anything, have payment plans to pay off valuables, and survive. Unfortunately, workers have no wealth and suffer from the storage of money, as how they make money is different from owners.

How do you understand the quote by Adam Smith on pg. 28? What is it saying about labor?

2. In my understanding of Adam Smith’s quote, the price of an item does not matter; what matters is the effort it takes to make the item. As a good example of this, he states that turning a tree into a profitable commodity such as furniture and paper is only possible through the labor it takes to create it, that the labor coming from timber harvesting, manufacturing, and advertising to sell the finished product is what makes their real price. It is the human laborers that make living possible, which is why the laborers are the most important, as they are the ones who produce the goods. Price of an item, the type of quality, and the cost of labor that went into making it. The more expensive the material, the more it cost for the skills it took to make the item. The value of a good quality and expense of making it is what creates value; it is the labor of work by the people who made the item.

What are your thoughts on the main argument of Reading 4.4 that class is NOT an identity?

3) I agree with the concept that class is not an identity but that it is used in politics and current society as a form of identity. It has become a tool to target and oppress specified genders and races deemed lesser. Class used to be a simple terminology defining your financial standing, which, as the reading suggests, tends to be an ideology still used by capitalists.

How do you understand the argument Reading 4.4. makes when stating that “class structures are built around a close form of dependency”? What is this close form of dependency, and can you think of an example?

4) In the argument “Class structures are built around a close form of dependency,” my understanding of this statement is that there is a balance that exists within class structures. One cannot exist without the other; a good example of this comes from this statement in the reading: “A worker is to always and everywhere be in a position of having your interests at least threatened by the capitalist that employs you.”. Capitalists do not exist without workers and vice versa; that is their balance.