1.Means of Production refers to the physical, non-human resources used to produce goods and services, such as factories, machines, tools, and raw materials. For example, in a car manufacturing plant, the factory building, assembly lines, and robots are part of the means of production.

Labor is the human effort physical and mental used to produce goods and services. For example, the workers on the assembly line who operate machines, weld parts, and inspect cars before they leave the factory are providing labor.

2.Value in a Marxist sense is tied to the amount of socially necessary labor time required to produce a good or service. Something has value not just because it exists, but because labor has been put into creating it.

What gives value to something is the amount of labor that goes into making it, as well as the social demand for that item. For example, a handwoven rug has value because of the time and effort put into weaving it, but if no one wants to buy it, its market value might be low.

3.Labor creates value because products only become valuable when human labor is used to transform raw materials into something useful. The more labor in terms of time and effort put into making an object, the more value it has. However, due to market fluctuations, not all labor results in equal value.

4. Labor is the actual work performed physically making a product, providing a service, etc.

Labor Power is a worker’s ability to work, which they sell to an employer in exchange for wages.

For example, a factory worker is hired to work eight hours a day. The employer doesn’t just pay for the exact amount of labor done but rather for the worker’s labor power the potential to produce during those hours. The difference between what the worker is paid and the value they produce is key to understanding surplus value.

5.Surplus Value is the extra value created by workers but not paid to them in wages; it is kept by the capitalist as profit.

It’s important because it explains how capitalists accumulate wealth and how workers often receive less than the full value of their labor.

Example: If a worker in a shoe factory produces $200 worth of shoes in a day but is only paid $80 in wages, the remaining $120 is surplus value, which goes to the owner of the factory.

M-C-M’ is the original capital formula, illustrating how capitalists accumulate and maintain their wealth. It begins with M (Money), which the capitalists use to purchase C (Commodities) in the form of raw materials and labor power. These commodities are used for production, and the produced commodities are sold at a higher price, thereby generating M’ (Money with surplus value), which is greater than the initial M.

Surplus value is the key to this process. It is obtained through labor. Labor power is purchased by capitalists from workers for wages. Workers produce value, though, more than their wages. The remainder, or surplus value, is what causes capitalist profit to arise. It is due to surplus labor that workers labor more than what it takes to produce value equivalent to their wages. For example, if a worker’s wage covers four hours of labor, but he works eight, then the other four hours yield excess value which the capitalist retains as profit.

This process turns money into capital. Money in itself is not money-making, but if invested in production by purchasing labor power and means of production becomes capital, which generates surplus value. Capitalists invest this surplus once more into production, purchasing more labor power and raw materials, always making money.

Unlike C-M-C, in which producers sell a commodity to buy what they need, capitalists operate with M-C-M, in which money is invested not for use but to generate even more money. Through the mechanism of reinvestment, the capitalist class is guaranteed to always accumulate more wealth while workers are trapped relying on wages. It is through this that the capitalist class can consolidate and expand its economic power.

1.
Parenti divides owners (capitalists) into persons deriving income from ownership of productive assets (stocks, bonds, property) and deriving profit from others’ labor, as against employees (workers) living off wages or salaries. Owners accumulate wealth through earning surplus value from workers, as against workers selling their labor in order to live.

Example of an owner: A billionaire Amazon shareholder who survives off dividends and gain in stock.
Example of an employee: A warehouse worker at Amazon who earns an hourly wage but owns no part of the company.
2.
Smith argues that value originates in work, not dollars. The “true price” of a product is the quantity of labor that is put into its production, and dollars are only a symbol. This is in line with the labor theory of value, which maintains that the labor of workers rather than capital and not dollars expended accounts for economic value. For example, the value of a smart phone comes from the labor of miners, engineers, and assembly workers, rather than dollars invested in purchasing it.

3.
Heideman argues that class is not merely an identity but rather a structural relationship to production. In contrast to gender or race, class depends on one’s economic position (e.g., owning capital or selling labor). Socialists would view class as a system of exploitation and dependence, not as a cultural identity.
Thoughts: This perspective evokes the means by which class shapes material conditions and relations of power, which are fundamental to resisting oppression. While class may affect identity (e.g., working class unity), reducing class to identity obscures structural power disparities.

4.
Heideman outlines that capitalists and workers are caught in interdependence: Capitalists need workers’ labor to be profitable, and workers need capitalists to work. But this interdependence is not equal capitalists have structural power.
Example: A CEO of technology (capitalist) depends on software engineers (workers) to produce products, but engineers depend on the CEO for wages. If workers organize a union, they can shut down production to bargain for higher wages, using the capitalist’s dependence on their work against him. This interdependence creates fundamental conflict, as compared to static ones like race.

1. What is Ideology?

a) As I Understand Ideology generally refers to a collection of beliefs and ideas that define the way in which we come to view reality and how reality should be. It influences all aspects of our lives, ranging from politics, culture, our perception of success, and perceptions of fairness. It’s some sort of filter in the head that helps one make sense of society.

b) Example: Take capitalism for instance. This is an ideology based on competition, private property, and free markets being tantamount to the economic growth and freedom of individuals. Those that believe in Capitalism usually emphasize that the State should intervene little, if at all, in the affairs of the market as it has self regulating abilities.

c) Going Deeper: Ideology isn’t only about politics, it’s around us everywhere it dictates our way of thinking about gender roles, education-even relationships. Interesting, though, is that sometimes we don’t recognize that we are being influenced by an ideology because it seems like common sense. Actually, though, what we consider normal is really a product of ideological systems that have been in place for centuries. Because people have different ideologies, there is always a contest over what ideas should take precedence in society.

2. Conservative vs Liberal Ideology in U.S. Politics

The biggest difference between conservatives and liberals in the U.S. is their view on government, social issues, and the economy.

Conservatives believe in smaller government, especially regarding economic policies. They believe in tradition, personal responsibility, and free markets. They usually support lower taxes, fewer regulations on businesses, and strong national security. Socially, conservatives often lean toward traditional values, though this varies.

Liberals believe that the government should be more actively involved in the establishment of a just society. They advocate for universal health care, social programs, and regulations on businesses to prevent inequality. They tend to be more progressive on social issues, such as LGBTQ+ rights, abortion rights, and racial and gender equality.

And then, of course, there’s the big dividing line: healthcare. Liberals: health care is a right provided by the government. Conservatives: health care is a personal responsibility, best provided by a free market system.

Example: Gun control is a clear example of this divide. Conservatives staunchly support the Second Amendment, claiming that people have the right to own guns for self-defense and protection from government overreach. Liberals, on the other hand, push for stricter gun laws to reduce violence, believing that public safety should come first.

3. Althusser’s Definition of Ideology

Althusser’s view of ideology is something within us, leading us to conduct and think as we do largely unconsciously; it is inscribed into routine life through political attitudes, yet it is within the schooling systems, churches, and the media. These various systems inculate what is perceived as “normal” andcondition us to obet certain prescriptions without necessarily thinking why.

Example: Schools don’t just teach math and science-they also teach students to follow rules, respect authority, and fit into the mold of what society expects of them. What Althusser calls the “Ideological State Apparatus” is a method of controlling people without force, simply by shaping their beliefs from a young age.

Breaking It Down: The key idea here is that ideology isn’t just something we believe-it’s something we live. It influences our choices, our goals, and even how we understand success or fairness. Perhaps one of the clearest examples is the idea that “hard work always pays off.” This is a very important value to instill, but this notion slightly ignores systemic inequality and generational wealth, along with many other factors affecting success. However, because this belief is so deeply engrained into society, rarely do people question it.

1. What is a Repressive State Apparatus? Why does Althusser call it “repressive”? Can we explain his choice of words here? Give an example.
   A Repressive State Apparatus is any state institution that enforces order through force or the threat of force. Althusser calls it “repressive” because these institutions maintain control by using physical repression, such as punishment, surveillance, or coercion. The key idea is that Repressive State Apparatus operate through violence or direct control rather than persuasion.

Example: The police and military are classic examples of Repressive State Apparatus. If there are protests against government policies, police forces may intervene by arresting protesters or using force to break up demonstrations. Their role is to ensure obedience through repression, not by changing people’s ideas.

2. What are Ideological State Apparatuses? How do they seem to work?
   Ideological State Apparatuses are institutions that control people through ideology rather than physical force. These include schools, religions, the media, and cultural institutions. Unlike RSAs, which enforce obedience through repression, Ideological State Apparatuses shape people’s beliefs and values, making them accept the system as natural or just.

Ideological State Apparatuses work by influencing how people think and see the world. For example, schools don’t just teach math and science they also teach discipline, respect for authority, and national pride. This makes students internalize certain values that support the existing system.

3. How are the Repressive and Ideological State Apparatuses different from each other? What is the difference between the two?
   The key difference is how they maintain control:

-Repressive State Apparatuses use force or the threat of force (police, military, prisons, legal system). They physically control people and punish those who resist.
-Ideological State Apparatuses use ideas and beliefs to shape people’s thoughts (education, media, religion, family, culture). They make people conform without needing direct coercion.
Example: Imagine a student refuses to stand for the national anthem in school.

If the police arrest the student for disrespecting the nation, that’s Repressive State Apparatus at work.
If the teacher convinces the student that standing for the anthem is a sign of respect and loyalty, that’s Ideological State Apparatuses at work.
Both methods ensure control, but one is based on force, and the other on shaping beliefs.

4. Post an example of ideology and specify if this is an example of repressive or ideological apparatuses at work.
   Example: A commercial that glorifies the American Dream showing that anyone who works hard can become rich. This is an Ideological State Apparatus at work because it promotes the belief that success is purely based on individual effort, ignoring social and economic inequalities.