1.P. Williams writes in her essay, that the war on terror is a new type of a war. What’s new about it, how is it different from traditional wars?

*According to P. Williams’ essay, the war on terror is far from being like other wars. It’s not just about fighting armies or capturing territory, which is why she refers to it as a “war of the mind.” Instead, the focus is on addressing beliefs and fear. The enemy was typically known in previous conflicts, such as a nation or specific group. However, in the war on terror, people who create fear are the enemy, making it much more difficult to identify and fight using traditional methods.

2.In what ways does the “Roving Wiretaps” of the Patriot Act seem to violate the Bill of Rights? Which amendment(s) does it seem to violate and why?

*The Patriot Act’s “Roving Wiretaps” clause permits law enforcement to gather information on a suspect without sharing the precise device or location they are monitoring. This means that they can continue to follow someone without obtaining a new warrant, even if they switch computers or phones. The Fourth Amendment, which was created to protect us from random searches, seems to be violated by this. It gives law enforcement far too much authority to monitor people at random without a specific reason why they might suspect them or solid proof, which can come across as misconduct.

3.What about “Sneak and Peek” Warrants?

*The FBI is able to search someone’s home or place of business without immediately informing them because of “sneak and peek” warrants, also referred to as delayed notice search warrants. It takes a long time, if anything, for the subject of the investigation to learn about the search. Although these warrants are intended to safeguard an investigation, they give reasons for serious concerns. It feels like a privacy invasion because it takes a long time for people to question the search or even determine whether their rights have been violated. People end up in a situation where they are unaware of what is going on with them.

1.Describe how you understand the “Establishment Clause” and the related “Lemon Test”.

*Congress is prohibited by the Establishment Clause from establishing or endorsing a state-sponsored religion, which now includes the states. And it prevents the government from favoring one religion over another or none at all. The Lemon Test, developed by the Supreme Court in the Lemon v. Kurtzman case (1971), impacts whether a law or government action that supports a particular religious practice should be permitted. For a law to be considered constitutional, it must fulfill three conditions:It must not lead to an excessive level of government interference in religious affairs. It would need to be unbiased, not encouraging or discouraging religious activity. The law or action must be justified in a free of religion or nonreligious way.

2.Is burning the US flag protected by the First Amendment? Explain by referring to the relevant court case discussed in the reading.

*Yes, burning the American flag counts as First Amendment-protected symbolic speech.At the 1984 Republican National Convention in Texas, Gregory Lee Johnson protested by burning a flag. He was arrested for “desecration of a venerated object,” but the Supreme Court reversed the decision. The Court found that burning flags is an expression that is protected by the First Amendment.

3.What does it mean when someone says “I’m taking the Fifth”

*The Fifth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution refers to the right that people have when they say, “’I’m taking the Fifth”. This amendment guarantees that people cannot be forced into testifying against themselves in criminal proceedings by requiring them to provide information that could implicate them. It is frequently used when someone decides to keep quiet in court in order to prevent being forced to testify against themselves.

 1.Describe the primary differences in the role of citizens in government, among the federal, confederation, and unitary systems.

*By choosing representatives to act on their behalf at the federal and state levels, citizens actively participate in a federal system. The main way that citizens participate in a confederation system is at the state level; the federal government is comparatively weaker and has little power over individual citizens. However, because power is concentrated in the central government, which has considerable influence over decisions that affect the people, citizens have less direct involvement in the system as a whole.

    2.Briefly explain how you understand the system of division of power.

*The division of powers system describes how responsibilities of the government are distributed among several branches so that no one branch has excessive authority. Because each branch supervises and restrains the others, this division aids in preserving the balance of power. The division of social classes, in which no one class has complete control over the others and each class has differing degrees of wealth, power, and resources, could be compared to this

    3.How does the federal government shape the actions of state and local governments? Write your answer based on doing a bit of research on how the federal government has influenced the actions of NY state and local governments, during the COVID-19 pandemic.
*Through financial assistance like grants and aid, the federal government has an impact on state and local policies. By offering financial assistance, bolstering healthcare systems, and guaranteeing vaccine distribution, the federal government significantly influenced the reactions of the state and local governments of New York during the COVID-19 pandemic. In order to help states and local governments manage public health, put safety measures in place, and recover from the crisis, the federal government also passed laws and policies. These steps were crucial in assisting New York and other states in overcoming the obstacles posed by the pandemic

1.Based on the arguments presented in Readings 6.1 and 6.2, which social class wrote the Constitution, and which class was excluded and not allowed to participate in this process? In your comment, make sure you clearly specify the difference between the two classes by giving examples from the readings.

*As mentioned in Readings 6.1 and 6.2, wealthy white men who had considerable sway over other social groups drafted the Constitution. According to Reading 6.1, the working class of the era was careless and dependent on government benefits like paper money, which continues to influence contemporary perceptions of the working class as needy. This perspective, however, oversimplifies the varied realities of today’s working class.

    2.Would you say that the social class structure of early United States society was the same as ours today, or different? Explain.

*Reading 6.2 emphasizes how the Constitution excluded women, men who did not own property, slaves, and indentured servants, among other marginalized groups, which served to further solidify the concept that the wealthy elite held the majority of the power. The social class gap still exists today, despite efforts by laws to address inequality, which do not entirely eliminate exclusion or discrimination. Even though the working class is diverse, it continues to be portrayed as being dependent on government assistance. Plus, there has been a reversal rather than advancement in handling inequality, as evidenced by the reversal of various working-class protections.

    3.Why were the people who wrote the Constitution so afraid of democracy? Hint: think about how to answer this question by discussing it in terms of social classes.

*Democracy was feared by the creators of the Constitution because it would make it harder for them to maintain control over the majority working class. Even though money still has an impact today, the majority of people in a democracy can change the balance of power, illustrating the persistent conflict between popular representation and wealth.

1.What concept that we have already discussed does “faction” remind you of?

*Divisions between groups are caused by factions, which is related to the idea of labor and industry development. Factions classify individuals, particularly with regard to the division of labor-based wealth.

    2.According to Federalist #10 (written by James Madison), what is the source of wealth (private property)? What factor explains why some people get to possess wealth by owning private property, and others don’t (thus remaining poor)? This is a key question, because it shows how the authors of the Constitution thought about the difference between different classes of Americans! HINT: focus on the passage that begins: “The diversity in the faculties (WHAT DOES FACULTIES mean or refer to?) of men, from which the rights of property originate, is not less ….”

*According to Federalist #10, those who are poor have less access to wealth (private property) since it is retained in the hands of the already wealthy. In order to survive, the working class must sell manual labor, which creates a vicious cycle, as James Madison explains. The working class is motivated to work harder by liberty, diversity among individuals makes numbers stronger, and faculties are used to keep groups apart so they can’t challenge the wealthy—an ongoing obstacle.

    3.Do you agree with this explanation of wealth and poverty?

*Although the reading provides a clear explanation of wealth and poverty, I only partially agree with it. It doesn’t accurately represent how someone who isn’t familiar with wealth and poverty would be described.

    4.What is the core mission (“first object”) of the US government? Does this surprise you, does it sound different from what our society today seems to suggest the core mission of the government is? Explain.

*Preventing violent faction conflicts and maintaining social stability are the main goals of the U.S. government. It protects social classes from one another and manages power between them. In contrast to the early government, which was completely exclusive, division is harmful and is frequently concealed by the government’s efforts to cover up exclusion today.

    5.Given the discussion in questions 1-4, are you surprised that Federalist #10 is not in favor of democracy, and supports a Republican (representative) form of government? Why would the author dislike a (pure) democratic form of government? Hint: think about how this question connects with the social classes…

*The opposition to democracy in Federalist #10 is not surprising. According to the document, the goal should be to control the effects of factions rather than trying to eliminate their causes. The issue is not resolved by taking away rights, and chaos results from letting factions turn into a riot.

1.Two key concepts in this video are the means of production and labor. In your comment, explain how you understand the means of production and labor. Give an example of each.

*What is meant by the term “means of production” are the resources, equipment, and expertise needed to create anything. These could be obvious instruments or invisible assets like skills and information. If you’re a baker, for example, your tools of the trade might be an oven, flour, sugar, baking knowledge, and recipes. When making bread or pastries, you use these materials.

The time and effort that truly goes into producing a good or service is known as labor. It is the labor that is done in order to make something happen. The time and effort required to mix, knead, bake, and package the bread or pastries, for instance, would be considered the baker’s labor. The amount of work required increases with the amount of time and skill needed. So in this case, labor is the time and physical effort required to make the baked goods, whereas means of production are the equipment and knowledge required to bake.

2.Another important concept in understanding social class is value. Based on the ideas presented in Video 5.1, what is value?  What gives “value” to value, what makes something valuable? 

*A product’s value is determined by how much work it takes to make it under typical conditions. A product’s worth is determined by the amount of time and effort that went into making it. When labor is put into something, it becomes something else, which increases its value beyond what it was before. This is what makes something valuable.

3.How are labor and value related? What’s the relationship/connection between the two?

*Value and labor are related because the amount of time and effort required to produce something has a direct impact on its value. A product’s value increases with the amount of work required to create it. The reason for this is because labor increases the value of raw materials by transforming them into something more desirable or useful.

4.How do you understand the difference between labor and labor power? Hint: this is a key difference, give it your best shot based on what the video says about it, and your own ideas. We’ll clarify and develop it in our discussions, and in my video comments.

*”Labor” is the effort put into creating or working toward something, whereas “labor power” is the potential amount of labor needed to produce a product. I understand this to mean that “power” in this context may refer to the quantity of people or capacity required to complete a task based on context-related hints. Labor is the actual work that is done, whereas labor power is the potential for work that can be applied to a task or project.

5.Surplus Value: what is it? Why is it important to know about, in our study of social classes? Think about an example of surplus value?

*When workers create value beyond their pay, that value is known as surplus value. The employer keeps the additional value that workers produce after receiving compensation as profit. Understanding capitalism requires an understanding of this concept since it demonstrates how workers are often paid less than the value they create, resulting in economic inequality. For example, if the bakery sold 100 croissants in an hour at $5 each, and a pastry baker was paid $10 per hour to make them, the overall profit from the croissants would be $500. The Surplus value, or profit, is the $490 that remains after subtracting the employee’s salary from the revenue and is retained by the bakery owner instead of being distributed to the employee/s.

1.Which statistic on wealth inequality in the US (discussed on p. 29) made the biggest impression on you? Explain why?

*“The top 1 percent own between 40 and 50 percent of the nation’s total wealth (stocks, bonds, investment funds, land, natural resources, business assets, and so on), more than the combined wealth of the bottom 90 percent.”- I was most impacted by this statement because it made me realize how much wider the wealth gap is, than I had previously thought. In addition to changing how I see things, it helps me understand more fully the notion that people are either born into wealth or poverty.

2.What could be some of the implications of living in a society that has such huge wealth inequalities? Do you see this dynamic getting played out in everyday life in our society? How so? Example?

*There are significant impacts to living in a society where wealth gaps are very frequent. The working class has fewer options regarding where to live and work, while the wealthy control employment opportunities and technological advancements. Yet lower-income families are displaced, for example, when wealthy investors purchase affordable housing. Workers who rely on their jobs to survive are frequently taken advantage of by business owners in ordinary situations. Retail and fast food workers endure low pay, unfavorable working conditions, and unstable employment. Uber drivers and other gig workers can be readily replaced, while the wealthy keep gaining wealth and influence while remaining oblivious to the struggles of the working class.

1.As we learned thus far, the capitalist class consists of people who own wealth, as well as the means of production in American society. An important question in understanding how this class works is to ask: how does a capitalist remain wealthy? The answer to this question depends largely on understanding the diagram M-C-M’. So, let’s practice by explaining what happens in this diagram in our own words (but basing our ideas on Reading 5.1). Respond to the following question: Explain M-C-M’ to show how capitalists maintain and increase their wealth.

*The formula M-C-M’ describes how capitalists preserve and increase their wealth. The capitalist begins with M which represents (Money), which he uses to purchase C which represents (Commodities), such as labor and raw materials. They then develop a product or service using these resources. The product is sold for more money than the initial investment when it is ready. The profit (M’) is the difference between the money spent and the money received from the sale of the product. The capitalist can reinvest and carry on the cycle thanks to this profit, or surplus value. They can continue to grow their wealth over time by investing, producing, and selling for more money.

1.Do you notice any similarities in the way social class is discussed in readings 4.1 and 4.2? Do you notice any differences in the way these two readings differentiate between social classes ?

*I wasn’t able to access 4.2 but according to 4.1, race, education, and income all have an impact on how people perceive social class. Class identity is frequently influenced by education whereas mobility and opportunities are influenced by race the article demonstrates how a combination of these aspects shapes social class.

2.Pick the station closest to where you live using the concepts from Reading 4.1, what social class tends to live in your neighborhood? Are you surprised (or Not) by the answer? Do you feel it is an accurate presentation of the people living in your neighborhood? 

*I live in Jackson Heights,  Which is near the 7 train line in Queens, the neighborhood is known for its diverse population with many residents being, Hispanic, South Asian and East Asian, since many people in my area depend on labor intensive job small businesses and service jobs the social class is primarily working class (low class), according to the ideas stated in the 4.1 article. Given that Jackson Heights has long been a neighborhood or immigrant family settle, frequently in pursuit of affordable housing and employment opportunities I’m not shocked by this response it seems to be a true portrayal of the neighborhood because in spite of financial difficulties the locals seem to put in a lot of effort to provide for their families and maintain their sense of community. 

3.Do you notice a pattern about social class in Nyc?

*Yes, In the neighborhoods of Queens, Bronx, Brooklyn, and Harlem, where a large population of immigrants and people of color reside. They are frequently home to lower-income families in Nyc. Except in Manhattan, where financially secure areas like the upper east side predominate, the wealthiest residents are typically found on the boroughs outside. With gentrification gradually altering the composition of historically lower-income neighborhoods, this division emphasizes the disparity between social classes.

1.what is the distinction that reading 4.3 makes between owners and employees? Give an example of each.

*The major difference between owners and employees is that the capital class or owners profit from their workers labor independently of a salary. Their assets, which include investments in stocks, bonds, real estate and land, generate profits for them. However, workers, also known as the labor class, depend on the money they make from their job to make ends meet.

2.How do you understand the quote by Adam Smith on pg 28? What is it saying about labor?

* Based on Adam Smith’s quote, “labor….  is alone the ultimate and real standard by which the value of commodities can at all times and places be estimated and compared….,” Smith points out the fact that the labor necessary to produce a good not the price paid for it determines its true value. This supports Abraham Lincoln’s assertion that “Labor is a superior of capital,” which holds that labor comes before capital. It basically implies that since money is just a medium of exchange and labor has a fundamental worth, the true source of value is the work that people do.

3.what are your thoughts on the main argument of reading 4.4 that class is not identity?

*The article in my opinion makes a crucial point that shouldn’t be seen as just another aspect of an individual’s identity. class is about Interdependence instead. The capitalist and labor classes are interdependent, in contrast to other aspects of identity such as race or gender, which are frequently viewed as separate. Most workers depend on capitalists for their wages and capitalists depend on workers to create wealth. It is more difficult to address more General issues of inequality when class is seen as just a ladder or power because it hides the deeper underlying causes of exploitation 

4. How do you understand the argument reading 4.4 makes when stating that “class structures are built around a close form of dependency, and can you think of an example? 

*Close form of dependency means the way that workers and capitalists depend on one another to keep the system functioning. Workers depend on capitalists for pay and job security, while capitalists need workers to produce goods and make money. For example, if employees in a factory go on strike, manufacturing stops and the company suffers financial losses. However if the owners of the factories fail to provide decent working conditions and fair wages, employees may leave, and the company may suffer. This shows how both groups are independent, but the resources are controlled by capitalists creating an unequal power balance.