1. Owners and employees, as differentiated in Reading 4.3, refer to the persons whose business roles are considered to making money.

Owners are the persons who own the business. They did not have to work in the business themselves but made money from the work of others. They own the factories, shops, or companies and profit from the labor of their employees. 

Example of the owner: Picture someone who owns a clothing store. He sells the clothes but hires people to help sell and organize the store. Decisions as to what to sell, how to run the store, and profit-sharing are left to the owner.

Employees are, by contrast, the people who are working for the owners. They do not own the business and get paid for the amount of work they perform.

Example of an employee: The cashier in the clothing store. The cashier does not own the store and is paid on an hourly basis or salary for helping customers and making sales. 

In brief, owners make a profit from the business and exercise control over it while employees operate the business for a wage.

2. The labor being discussed is the work people do to create value in everything that they use or buy. Without people working, whether they are building houses, making food, or building technologies, there wouldn’t be products and services at all. The worth of something is determined by the amount of work a person puts into its production. 

For instance, any labor put into making the car would have given value; the car has value not only because of the materials that went into it but also because of the labor people put into assembling it.

And so, Adam Smith says labor is value-giving; absent of any work by people, there would be no wealth and no products.

3. Coming back to Reading 4.4, class is said to be more than an identity. By this, the inference is that how one views him- or herself or what label one uses to define him- or herself (such as, “I’m middle class”) should not define one’s class position in society. Instead, class constitutes a position in the economy.

Why class isn’t an identity: Class isn’t just something you decide to be or consider yourself to be. It’s a function of how you relate to work and wealth. For instance, all the claims to be “middle class” may have indeed been made under decent circumstances (having a decent job or home), but one may be economically in a lower class if one does not own a business, or does not have a great deal of money. 

The author says, Therefore, that class is about (lack of) power and control over resources such as money businesses, and land. It is not about the way you see yourself, but about what you control within the gasping arms of society.

4. In Reading 4.4, the theory of class structures goes beyond mutual interdependence between worker and owner; rather, there is an economy of interdependence that serves the best interest of one over another. Jointly reliant on the functioning of the system, the owners maintain more power.

Interdependency: Workers depend on the owners to provide them with jobs and wages. Owners, on the other hand, depend on workers to do the labor that brings profit to their business. Only the owners are empowered to set wages and working conditions. 

Example: Consider our factory worker and their factory owner. The factory worker needs that paycheck to live, so he is dependent on the owner for employment. The owner needs the factory worker to do the work that enables the factory to manufacture products and amass profits. The workers cannot manufacture goods unless the factory is in operation and also the owner cannot generate profits in the absence of workers’ labor. 

Thus establishes an interdependent relationship between workers and owners which is close yet uneven. Workers depend on owners for income, owners for their income depend on workers, but owners are in power.

There are similarities and differences in discussing social classes in readings 4.1 and 4.2: 

Similarities

Both readings have their ways of determining social classes and the forms in which individuals experience them. They reveal a direct correlation between many factors and what it means to be categorized under social classes, such as income, jobs, or education level, which are three indicators of self-concept assessment of individuals and perceptions regarding another person’s social class. 

Another similarity is that both readings generalize the understanding of social class much more than what can be said to be true. Reading 4.1 talks about how people define class in terms of income or job which are evident but not necessarily that simple. Reading 4.2 takes it a step further and points out the link of income and class to the geography of the locality one inhabits, as visible in the example of the NYC subway map. So, the two readings are saying the same thing: class is more than just how much one earns or even what their job title is. 

Differences: 

Reading 4.1 is fundamentally about the way Americans perceive and define self to classify. When asked who they consider working class, Americans would most often view it in terms of the amount of cash one earns, educational level, or particular kind of employment. This way of thinking about social class is too limited, thereby trying to take a more critical and thoughtful approach toward self-formation in social class thinking.

Comparatively, reading 4.2 approaches social class to geography, particularly the New York City metropolitan area. That subway map showed how certain parts of the city had contrasting classes of individuals living there, mainly by income and geographic location. Thus, if reading 4.1 focuses more on how people define class, reading 4.2 shows geographic variation, which could very well tell us something about a person’s social class.

2. Social Class in My Neighborhood:

Using examples from Reading 4.1, I would consider what jobs, income, and education level people have in my neighborhood to determine what social class most people belong to. An example would be if I lived in a neighborhood where most had middle-income jobs (like teachers or office workers); I would probably call it a middle-class neighborhood. On the other hand, if people are high-earners, let alone having a mix of high- and low-income earners, the neighborhood would probably be a mix of the middle and upper class or even include some working class.

This answer surprises me depending on my expectations. If I had thought that the neighborhood was mostly wealthy and discovered it was middle class, I might feel surprised. On the other hand, if I already thought it was middle class, then that wouldn’t be surprising. But when I think about it in a deeper sense, I might feel that the people who live here truly represent the class I think they belong to.

Generally The Socio-Economic Pattern In New York City (From Reading 4.2): 

Through reading 4.2, we see that within the New York City community, people’s social classes derive as much from the area in which they live, the more affluent found residing adjacent to or close to such subway stations viewed as higher-income areas-perhaps within parts of Manhattan and Brooklyn. These areas are characterized by relatively expensive housing and even higher-paying jobs. In contrast, lower-income communities are usually found closer to subway stations known to be associated with lower incomes-like South Bronx or Queens.

This indicates the very evident pattern here in NYC: the neighborhood you live in will tell a person a lot about your social class. This can be visualized along the shape of the subway map because a visual representation will suffice to see how one speaks of social class via one’s neighborhood. So that is what the sub on the mind for this reading sets out to largely clarify; that social class is not just about how much money you make, but where you live and what it says about your income level. It is a very typical way to see how social class can combine many factors rather than being based purely on a person’s job or paycheck.

1. Repressive State Apparatus (RSA):

An RSA is a state apparatus of repression seeking to repel forces or impose order on disobedient or untamed subjects. Althusser refers to it as “repressive” because it relies on force, even on killing or serious bodily harm, to keep people in line with laws and rules; thus, RSA entails direct uses of physical power or violence. Police, military, courts, and prisons fall under the category of RSAs; they implement and subsequently apply rules against those who contravene the law, often through brute force or legal sanctions. 

Example: The arresting of a lawbreaker by police is straightforward RSA. The police use force on behalf of their laws.

2. Ideological State Apparatus (ISA):

The ISA refers to institutions that inculcate values and beliefs in people without direct coercion. They do so by implanting an ideal system that holds that the current social order is normal and natural. ISA includes schools, the media, the church, and the family. They tell us what is right and wrong and model our behavior, which, most of the time, leads us to conform to the establishment without physical coercion.

Example: In schools, children would be taught to Respect Authority and Obey Rules – a kind of ISA being put to work. Schools shape ideas about what acceptable behavior is in society.

3. Difference Between Repressive and Ideological State Apparatus:

The difference is that repressive state apparatuses (RSA) tend to apply force and violence to control individuals (police and military), whereas ideological state apparatuses (ISA) tend to control the same individuals without the use of force (schools and media). RSA is activated when the law is broken and punishes the offender; ISA works roughly by forming people’s minds to keep maintaining the status quo.

4. 4. Example of Ideology:

Example: An ad that sells a luxury item, like an extremely expensive car, that will make you successful and happy. This would be an example of an ideological

The apparatus at work influences peoples’ belief in success and happiness without violence, making people think that a good life has to be attained with the products.

1.An ideology is a group of beliefs or ideas that permits people to explain and understand the world. It serves to give direction to peoples’ thinking concerning politics, issues of social relations, and the economy. Ideologies therefore denote how individuals deliberate, decide upon, behave regarding, and reflect on really major issues in governance, freedom, and justice.

For example, the liberals would think that for poverty and inequality that is partaking in the nation there needs to some form of governmental action through the use of law and program. The conservatives, however, would be of the view that it isn’t upon the government to meddle in the lives of its citizens and that the freedom of the individual to make their choices should come above all else.

The ideologies influence how people act and what they find important. It is not just about ideas; it also refers to law, policy, and just how societies operate. For example, some firmly believe in capitalism in which companies compete freely; others espouse socialism, which discusses distributive justice in terms of resources being apportioned out more equally. Ideology is part of who we are as individuals and influences the framework in which we base our view regarding interactions with the surrounding society.

2.Difference between U.S. Liberalism and Conservatism: 

U.S. conservatism and liberalism imply different things about the ideal nature of government and society.

Conservatives do like limited government and personal responsibility. They desire a government which should not be involved in everybody’s life to let individuals take their decisions by themselves. To them, the values and the traditions are respectfully regarded; lower taxes and lesser government spending.

For liberals, a strong intervening government helps solve social issues and promotes equality. They believe that health care and educational services should be provided as a right through the government while the rights of individuals must be protected as well. In order to help pay for these, they seek much higher taxes on the wealthy.

Key differences:

Roll of Government: Conservatives believe in reduced government activity; Liberals have faith in increased government actions.

Freedom vs. Equality: Conservatives preach freedom; liberals vehemently promote equality.

Tradition vs. Change: Conservatives love tradition; liberals need change to advance.

To illustrate this, for example, is the debate over healthcare. Conservatives are against governmental healthcare because conservatives believe in a free choice for everyone. However, liberals perceive healthcare as something the government should give to everybody.

3.To Althusser, ideology was not just an idea that one chose to follow; it was something that molded the world for its believers sans cognizance. It teaches an individual how one thinks and behaves to that which seems normal to him, while in principle, helping maintain the power of those who exercise that control. Through schools, media, and family, it shows us how to behave and believe.

Example:

For instance, schools socialize children to obey the rules and respect authority. This part of the training serves a greater plan—basic in maintaining the existing social order—and teaches the members to accept things as they are, even when that status quo works mostly to the advantage of the rich and powerful.

In the end, the socializing role of schools reinforces a political structure ideologically supportive of the powerful.