1. The Establishment Clause is part of the First Amendment and it stops the government from setting up an official religion or favoring one religion over others. It’s all about keeping church and state separate. From the 1971 Supreme Court case Lemon v. Kurtzman, the Lemon Test helps decide if a law breaks this rule. It checks three things: (1) the law must have a non-religious purpose, (2) it shouldn’t help or hurt religion, and (3) it shouldn’t make the government too involved with religion. If a law fails any of these, it might be unconstitutional. I think this test is super important because it keeps things fair and prevents the government from getting too cozy with any religion.

2. Burning the US flag is protected by the First Amendment as symbolic speech. This was decided in the 1989 Supreme Court case Texas v. Johnson, where the Court said burning the flag is a form of expression that’s protected. Even though it’s controversial, the decision shows that free speech includes stuff we might not like. Personally, I feel like this ruling is crucial because it reminds us that freedom of expression means allowing all kinds of speech, even if it makes us uncomfortable.

3. “I’m taking the Fifth” When someone says “I’m taking the Fifth,” they’re using their Fifth Amendment right to avoid self-incrimination. Basically, it means they don’t have to answer questions that could get them into legal trouble. This right is part of making sure people are treated fairly in court. In my opinion, it’s a smart move because it protects individuals from being forced to say something that could be used against them later.

1. In a federal system like the United States, citizens have roles at both the national and state levels. This means that power is shared between the federal government and the states. The federal government takes care of big issues that affect the whole country, like national defense and foreign policy. Meanwhile, state governments handle local matters such as education and transportation. In a confederation, the situation is different because the central government is weaker, and most of the power lies with the individual states. This allows states to make their own decisions without much interference. On the other hand, in a unitary system, the central government holds most of the power, and local governments have limited roles. Here, citizens mainly interact with the central government, which makes decisions for the entire country.

2. The division of power is about how responsibilities are split among different levels of government to keep things balanced. In a federal system, this means dividing tasks between the national and state governments. The national government handles broad issues like immigration and currency, while state governments focus on local concerns like schools and roads. This setup allows for more localized decision-making, which can be better suited to address the specific needs of different communities. It also prevents any one part of the government from becoming too powerful by ensuring that each level has its own set of powers and duties.

3. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the federal government played an important role in shaping how New York state and local governments responded. One major way it did this was by providing funding to help manage the crisis. This included money for healthcare systems, testing, and vaccine distribution. The federal government also issued public health guidelines, like recommendations for social distancing and mask-wearing, which influenced how states like New York responded to the pandemic. Additionally, emergency declarations from the federal level allowed states to access resources and support more quickly. Overall, the federal government’s actions helped guide New York’s response and ensured that state and local governments had the tools they needed to protect their citizens.

In the M-C-M’ cycle, which stands for Money-Commodity-More Money, capitalists grow their wealth by starting with money (M) to buy commodities (C), like raw materials and labor, that are needed for production. These commodities are used to create products, which are then sold for more money (M’) than was originally spent. The goal is to make a profit, which comes from selling the products at a higher price than the cost of making them. By repeating this process and reinvesting the profits, capitalists can keep increasing their wealth over time. This cycle shows how they turn money into more money by adding value during production and selling goods for a profit.

For Example, a coffee shop owner who starts with $500 (M) to buy coffee beans, milk, sugar, and pay the baristas (C). After making and selling coffee drinks, they bring in $800 (M’). The $300 difference is their profit. By using this profit to buy more supplies and maybe hire extra staff, the coffee shop can serve more customers next time, boosting their earnings. This shows how the M-C-M’ cycle works by turning initial money into more money through smart production and sales in a simple coffee business.

• Two key concepts in this video are the means of production and labor. In your comment, explain how you understand the means of production and labor. Give an example of each.

The means of production are the tools, equipment, and resources needed to create products, while labor is the work people do to make those products. For example, at a coffee shop, the workers who brew coffee shop, the workers who brew coffee and make the drinks are providing labor. The coffee machines, blenders, and cups that are used are the means of production because they are the tools needed to help create the product.

• Another important concept in understanding social class is value. Based on the ideas presented in Video 5.1, what is value?  What give “value” to value, what makes something valuable? 
• Value is the worth of something, which is measured by the time and effort put into making it. According to the video, what makes something valuable is how much Labor is taken to produce under normal circumstances. For example, someone who makes a homemade cake might be more valuable than if you bought one at a store one because someone spent time and care to make it from scratch.

• How are labor and value related? What’s the relationship/connection between the two?

Labor and value are connected because the work people do (Labor) adds worth to the product or services. The more effort and time put into making something, the more valuable it becomes. For example, a home-cooked meal is more valuable than fast food because it takes time and care to prepare it.

• How do you understand the difference between labor and labor power? Hint: this is a key difference, give it your best shot based on what the video says about it, and your own ideas. We’ll clarify and develop it in our discussions, and in my video comments.

Labor is the actual work someone does, like serving customers at a restaurant. Labor Power is the ability to work, like having certain skills and energy needed to do the work.

• Surplus Value: what is it? Why is it important to know about, in our study of social classes? Think about an example of surplus value?

Surplus value is the extra money a business makes from a worker’s effort. It’s important because it shows how workers get paid less than the value they create. For example, A worker makes $100 worth of products but only gets paid $40, the $60 left over is surplus value given to the boss or company.

1.What is a Repressive State Apparatus? Why does Althusser call it “repressive”? Can we explain his choice of words here. Give an example.

A Repressive State Apparatus is basically a group of institutions that keep order by using force or the threat of it. Althusser calls it “repressive” because these institutions, like the police or military, use physical power to control people and make them follow the rules. For example, when there’s a protest, the police might step in to break it up.

2. Let’s do the same for the Ideological State Apparatuses. What are they, how do they seem to work?

Ideological State Apparatuses are different because they don’t rely on force. Instead, they work by spreading ideas and beliefs to keep things running smoothly. These include schools, churches, and the media. They shape how we think about the world and what’s considered normal or acceptable. For instance, schools teach us certain values and norms that align with society’s expectations.

3. Important: this question will appear on our exam: How are the Repressive and Ideological State Apparatuses different from each other? What is the difference between the two?

 The big difference between the two is how they control people. Repressive State Apparatuses use force and coercion, like the police or army, while Ideological State Apparatuses influence us through ideas and culture, like education and media. One uses physical power, and the other shapes our thoughts and beliefs.

4. Post an example of ideology. This could be a piece of writing, an image, video, pdf document, visual art, or music, clip from a movie. Next to your example, specify if this is an example of repressive or ideological apparatuses at work.

MEGA – “Make America Great Again” is a slogan that became really popular during Donald Trump’s 2016 campaign. It’s a good example of an ideological apparatus because it pushes a certain way of thinking about the country. The phrase makes people think about a time in the past when things were supposedly better and encourage them to believe in a specific vision for how the country should be.

1. Keeping in mind the material covered in this lesson, describe how you understand ideology in your own words.

Ideology is basically a set of beliefs and ideas that shape how we see the world and make decisions. It influences our political, economic, and social views, guiding what actions and policies we support. For example, different ideologies like conservatism, liberalism, socialism, and libertarianism have their own takes on government roles and social issues. Conservatives might focus on personal freedoms and traditional values, while liberals often push for social welfare and equality. Socialists aim for public ownership to reduce inequality, and libertarians want less government interference. Look at marijuana legalization. A conservative might be against it because they worry about its impact on society and moral values. On the other hand, a liberal might support it to promote personal freedom and fix social justice issues, like reducing jail time for minor drug offenses. Libertarians would likely back legalization too, since they believe in personal choice and minimal government control. This shows how ideology affects what people think about policies. Understanding ideology means seeing how these different views impact society. Ideologies aren’t just ideas; they influence laws, cultural norms, and everyday life. By looking at how ideologies work, we can understand why people believe what they do and how those beliefs lead to changes in society.

2. How do you understand the difference between conservative and liberal ideology in US politics? What seem to be the big differences, the dividing line? Given an example to backup your arguments.

In U.S. politics, the difference between conservative and liberal ideology can be seen in how each views the role of government and individual freedoms. Conservatives often believe that the government should have a limited role, especially in economic matters, emphasizing personal responsibility and traditional values. They might prioritize individual rights like owning guns and are generally skeptical of large social welfare programs. On the other hand, liberals tend to support a more active government role in reducing social inequalities and providing services such as healthcare and education. They focus on social justice and environmental protection, believing that collective efforts can lead to a fairer society. For instance, when it comes to healthcare, conservatives might worry about too much government control, while liberals see universal healthcare as essential for ensuring everyone has access to medical care. These differences highlight how conservatives value individualism and self-reliance, whereas liberals emphasize community support and equality.

3. How do you understand Althusser’s definition of ideology? Paraphrase it in your own words. Given an example. Hint: you may have to watch the second video again, and find the few places where Althusser’s position is presented.

Louis Althusser, a Marxist Philosopher, describes ideology as a set of beliefs and ideas that unconsciously influence how individuals understand and engage with the world around them. Ideology works in such a way that people often accept these beliefs as natural or obvious, without questioning their origins or implications. Take deportation, for example. In capitalist societies, the rich might push the idea that deporting immigrants will fix economic problems and create more jobs for citizens. This shifts attention away from bigger issues such as low wages or lack of investment in local communities. As a result, people might support strict immigration policies and politicians who call for mass deportations, thinking it will help their economic situation. However, these actions can lead to labor shortages and hurt industries that rely on immigrant workers, which ends up affecting everyone negatively. By focusing on deportation, the real causes of economic challenges get ignored, showing how ideology can distract from the actual problems.