1. New Type of War in the War on Terror: The War on terror, according to P. Williams, is distinct because it is waged against non-state entities, such as terrorist organizations, rather than a particular nation-state or army, making it more challenging to define and combat. Unlike conventional conflicts with distinct foes and borders, this one is a worldwide, continuous fight with no end in sight
2. Robin Wiretaps and the Bill of Rights: According to the Fourth Amendment, which forbids arbitrary searches and seizures, the Patriot Acts “Roving Wiretaps” may be in violation. It violates the right to privacy and due process by enabling the government to listen on phone calls without identifying the subject.
3. Sneak and Peek Warrants : With these warrants, the government can examine a house or place of business without first informing the owner, which may be against the Fourth Amendment’s ban on unjustified searches and seizures. Delaying notice and carrying out searches without prompt supervision may be interpreted as violating privacy rights.

1. Establishment Clause & Lemon Test: The government cannot create or promote a religion because of the Establishment Clause. The lemon Test, derived from Lemon v. Kurtzman in 1971, assures that government acts serve a secular purpose, do not advance or impede religion, and avid excessive religious entanglement.
2. Flag Burning & First Amendment: The First Amendment does, in fact, protect burning the American flag. Flag burning is considered symbolic expression and is protected under free speech rights, according to the supreme Court’s 1989 decision in Texas V Johnson.
3. Taking the Fifth: “Taking the Fifth” is the term used to describe using the Fifth Amendment, which shield people from being forced to testify against themselves in a criminal proceeding.

1)New Type Of War (War on Terror)

P. Williams characterizes the war on terror as distant since it targets non-states actors for example (terrorist groups) rather than traditional nation states. It differs from traditional wars fought between nations in that it is an ongoing worldwide struggle without defined battle lines.

2)Roving Wiretape & Bill of Rights Violations

The Patriot Acts “Roving Wiretaps” clause gives the government the authority to monitor communication across many devices without naming a target. Since it can be interpreted as an invasion of privacy without the required warrants, it appears to be a violation of the Fourth Amendment, which forbids unreasonable searches and seizures.

3)”Sneak and Peek” Warrant:

These warrants give police the ability to search a resident or piece of property without first informing the owner. Since it might be interpreted as an unlawful search without enough notice, this could violate the Fourth Amendment by undermining the right to know about searches and seizures .

1)Establishment Clause & Lemon Test:

The establishment of a religious by the government Is forbidden by the Establishment Clause. According to the Lemon Test, which was developed in Lemon V. Kurtzman in 1971, a legislation is deemed to violate this section if it has a secular aim, does not advance or impede religion, and refrains from undue government with religion.

2)Burning the US flag & First Amendment:

According to the ruling in Texas v. Johnson in 1989, during the American flag is allowed by the First Amendment since it is symbolic speech and, as such, a form of expression.

3)Taking the Fifth:

It entails using the Fifth Amendment, which protects an individual’s right to silence and the avoidance of self incrimination in court.

Describe the primary differences in the role of citizens in government, among the federal, confederation, and unitary systems.

Citizens in a federal system participate in both national and local governments since power is divided between them. Since the central government in a confederation has little authority, citizens mostly interact with state or regional administrations. In a unitary system, local government function as extensions of the national government, and citizens primarily participate at the national level.

Briefly explain how you understand the system of division of power.

The way authority is distributed across the several government levels-national, state, and local is referred to as the system of division of powers. A central government and regional government share authority is a federal system, and each has distinct duties. In a unitary system, local governments have little power while the central government holds the majority of the authority. In a confederation, the central government has little power while the regional government hold most of the power.

How does the federal government shape the actions of state and local governments? Write your answer based on doing a bit of research on how the federal government has influenced the actions of NY state and local governments, during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Thought financing, directives, and executive orders, the federal government impacted municipal and state government in New York State during the Covid-19 epidemic. In addition to directing vaccine distribution, the federal government offered financial support through stimulus packages like the CARES act. New York also implemented its own precautions, including make mandates and lockdowns, while adhering to public health guidelines provided by CDC. while the state retained control over certain policies and choices, New York’s response to the crisis was influenced by federal funds and direction.

What does the word “disenfranchised” mean? If you’re not sure, check it out in a dictionary such as https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/disenfranchised

“Disenfranchised” describes the condition of not having any of the rights or advantages associated with citizenship, particularly the ability to vote. For legal, social, or economic reasons, it may also apply to people or groups who have Benn denied the opportunity to engage in political or social activities. It basically refers to those who are excluded from decision-making processes and are not given a voice.

Who were the members of the “Disenfranchised”? What were some common factors shared by members of this group? What social class that we have studied in previous modules is Beard describing here?

The term “disenfranchised” describes people or groups who were not allowed to cast ballots or take part in full political activities. This group’s common characteristics were social class, gender, and race. This frequently included Native Americans, women, poor or landless white men who did not meet property requirements, and African Americans in particular those who were enslaved and free black in several states. The political system consistently excluded these populations.

Which social class did the “real property holders” and those in “manufacturing, shipping and personal securities” belong to? Why, what makes their class membership clear?

In early America, the “real property holders” and those engaged in “manufacturing, shipping, and personal securities” were members of the upper or aristocratic class. The fact that these people possessed substantial assets, like real estate, companies, or financial securities, which gave them riches and social standing, makes their class affiliation obvious. They were able to exert influence in both the political and social arenas thanks to their economic mights. Being able to control important business like shipping and manufacturing or hold substantial tracts of land allowed them to maintain a dominant position in society and influence public policy, setting them apart from the working or lower classes.

1. In early America, what was required for someone to be able to vote?
2. Which social class did most people belong to in early America?
3. What was Madison’s goal in writing “Federalist #10”?
4. Why were the people who wrote the Constitution so afraid of democracy? This is an important point that we will discuss in our discussion board next.
5. What were some of the reasons why the Constitution never abolished the slave trade?

1. In early America, only white men who were at least 21 years old, had property, and were citizens of the United States were usually eligible to vote. Native Americans, women, and other racial minorities were typically not allowed to vote, however certain states did permit free black men to do so under specific restrictions. Voters in some jurisdictions had to pay a poll tax or fulfill religious requirements, and property ownership was a crucial prerequisite. Due to these limitations, only a select, privileged group of people were able to vote.
2. The working or lower class comprised the majority of individuals in early America, including farmers, laborers, and craftspeople. A smaller percentage of the population was made up of the wealthier landowners, merchants, and elite people, while the majority of people lived in rural areas and worked on farms.
3. In Federalist Number 10, Madison argued that the best way to manage factions and keep any one group from acquiring too much power would be to establish a big, diversified republic. Because a vast republic would contain a range of interests, he thought it would be more difficult for any one side to dominate, resulting in more equal representation and greater stability.
4. Since pure democracy could result in mob rule or the tyranny of the majority, when minority groups rights and interests could be disregarded or violated, the framers of the Constitution were cautions about it. Their exposure to the unpredictability and chaos of popular uprisings, such as Shay’s Rebellion, had an impact on many of them. They created a system of representative democracy with checks and balances to guarantee that power would be balanced and regulated because they felt that a strong, stable government was necessary to avert anarchy. They sought to avoid the possible risks of popular control while establishing a government that upheld individual liberties.
5. The main reason the Constitution never outlawed the slave trade was because of political concession made to win over Southern states, whose economies depended heavily on slavery. Fearing it would hurt their economic interests, many Southern delegates vowed to reject the Constitution if it contained a clause requiring the immediate abolition of the slave trade. Thus, the framers made a concession by permitting the slave trade to go on for another 20 years, until 1808, when congress was granted the authority to outlaw it. In particular, the Southern states would not have accepted the Constitution otherwise, therefore this compromise was essential to its adoption.

Which statistic on wealth inequality in the US (discussed on p. 29) made the biggest impression on you? Explain why?

The fact that 90% of American families have little or no assets left the stronger impression on me. This is especially striking because many people in todays society are obsessed with material possessions, frequently mistaking expensive items or a particular lifestyle for prosperity. The truth is that most Americans are still unable to achieve true financial stability and prosperity, and this inability to accumulate assets feeds that poverty cycle. It demonstrates that a large number of people lack the financial means to better their lives over the long run, something that may not always be apparent to outsiders who only perceive outward riches.

What could be some of the implications of living in a society that has such huge wealth inequalities? Do you see this dynamic getting played out in everyday life in our society? How so? Example?

Social divisions, where the affluent and poor are kept apart, are one issue brought on by wealth disparity. This makes it more difficult for those with lesser incomes to obtain necessities like decent housing, healthcare, and education. Additionally wealth also gives the wealthy more sway over political decisions, which frequently results in laws and policies that benefit them, widening the divide. For others who are less privileged, this can lead to resentment, irritation, and sense of powerlessness.

These problems are present In daily life. Healthcare is a major issue, for instance: while wealthy individuals can access private hospitals that offer the greatest care, thoes in impoverished neighborhoods frequently cannot afford routine checkups or must cope with overcrowded, understaffed hospitals. Another example is education: wealthy families may afford elite schools and use connections to get their children into top institutions, but poorer pupils lack access to the same resources and chances. As a result, it appears that although the wealthy can readily advance, the poor must work considerably harder for fewer opportunities.

The graphic M-C-M depicts how capitalists preserve and grow their wealth through a cycle of investment and profit production. The capitalist begins by using M (money) to purchase C (commodities), which may include labor, raw materials, and production-related instruments. After then, products or services are made using the commodities. M (more money) is the result of the items being sold for money than the capitalist initially invested after they are made. By reinvesting profit from the sale, the capitalist can continue the cycle and eventually increase their wealth. By paying workers less than the value they produce and keeping the difference as surplus value that is reinvested to increase wealth, capitalists are able to earn profit.

The Meaning Of Production And Labor

Labor is the work that people undertake to create commodities and Services, whereas the means of production are the resources such as land, factories, equipment etc. that are employed to do so. For instance, in order to run machinery and put together goods, a factory meaning of production which needs manpower.

Meaning Of Value

Value is the worth of anything, as defined by how much people are prepared to pay for it or how much it provides to society. Scarcity, utility, and demand are frequently what determine the worth of an item. Gold, for example, is a major value because it is rare, long lasting and has numerous applications.

Labor Vs. Labor Power

Labor vs Labor Power describes the actual work being done, whereas labor power describes a worker’s capacity or ability to carry out job. while labor is the actual act of completing work, labor power is the potential of a work to perform work.

Surplus Value

Surplus value is defined as the difference between what workers are paid and the value they produce. It is relevant to the study of social classes because it explains how wealth is generated in capitalism system, which frequently benefit owners more then workers. For example, if a workers produces 400 in items in a day but is paid 200, and the 200 difference represents surplus value that the company receives.