A capitalist remains wealthy by engaging in small-scale commodity production and using the general formula for capital. This system allows capitalists to accumulate wealth over time. Small-Scale Commodity Production uses the C-M-C model. “C” stands for commodity, which means the goods that people make and “M” stands for money. A person makes a product (“C”) and sells that product for money (“M”) and then uses that money to buy something they need (“C”). In contrast, the M-C-M model uses a buying in order to sell approach. “M” represents the initial amount of money and “C” is the commodity bought. The second “M” indicates the represents surplus value or profit. The primary difference between the two models lies in their outcomes. C-M-C is centered on meeting needs and personal consumption. M-C-M is focused on generating profit through the process of buying low and selling high. The transformation from money (M) into capital (M-C-M’) involves investing into things that generate surplus value. Capitalists invest their earned money into labor and resources into things that lead to profit when they sell the commodities for more than what they spent.

1. Means of production refers to the physical and non-physical resources needed to produce goods. A factory is an example of means of production. Labor is the human effort (both physical and mental) used in the creation of goods and services. An example of labor would be the role of an employee in a company.
2. Value refers to the worth of a good/service. This can be determined by various factors, including demand, and the production costs. Something holds value based on the labor invested in it and the resources used. Additionally, social demand can dictate the value of a good/service.
3. The value of a product is often determined by the labor that goes into creating it. Typically, the more labor-intensive a product is to make, the higher its value.
4. Labor power is the worker’s ability to work; like their potential to do a job over a certain period of time. Labor on the other hand, is the actual work that the worker does and the effort they put in during a specific task. In short, labor power is the capacity to work, while labor is the work done.
5. Surplus value is the difference between what workers are paid and the value of the goods and they produce. For example, if a worker is paid $20 per hour but produces goods worth $50 in that hour, the surplus value is $30. This concept is crucial in understanding social classes because it illustrates how capitalists generate profit from labor.

1. The text distinguishes between owners and employees based on their sources of income and their roles in the economy. Owners are individuals who possess significant wealth, primarily derived from investments such as stocks, bonds, and property. For example, a wealthy stockholder in a large corporation would be considered an owner. Employees are individuals who earn their living through wages or salaries by working for someone else. An example of an employee might be a factory worker or a corporate manager who receives a salary.
2. Adam Smith’s quote suggests that labor has more value in the economy than money. The labor behind a product determines its true value in society because while money can fluctuate in value, the actual work done to create goods remains a constant standard for measuring their worth.
3. Heidman emphasizes that class is a relational and structural concept that influences access to resources, opportunities, and power rather than the common notion that social class is merely a label individuals adopt. It’s about how economic factors shape experiences and realities, rather than a mere self-identification based on income or occupation. I do agree with this point. Social class is primarily based on economic factors surrounding ones life rather than where they feel like they socially belong.
4. The phrase “class structures are built around a close form of dependency” refers to the intricate ways in which different classes rely on one another within the economy. For instance, the working class depends on the owning class for employment, while the owning class relies on the labor of the working class to generate profits. A clear example of this dependency can be seen in the relationship between factory workers and corporate owners. Factory workers provide the labor necessary for production, while owners provide the jobs and the means of production.

1. Both articles emphasize how social class is not just a matter of income or wealth, but also shaped by personal perception and individual experiences. Each article touches on how social class influences personal identity and social interactions. The Gallup article discusses how Americans classify themselves and others based on personal beliefs about class status while the New Yorker piece illustrates how class affects daily experiences, such as commuting on the subway, and how these experiences shapes the understanding of social status.
2. The nearest train station to me is the LIRR. I believe this indicates that the people in my are are typically working middle class which I believe to be accurate. The closest subway is the E and F train which is about 25 minutes away by bus. I’m not surprised by the article’s interpretation of who lives in my area.
3. There’s a noticeable physical division in how different social classes experience the city. For example, wealthier individuals often live in more spacious areas and can afford amenities that enhance their commuting experience, while lower-income residents may face cramped conditions and limited access to resources. This highlights the difference between the subway and the lirr. The LIRR is spacious, always has air conditioning, and allows access to the bathroom. Its also quicker and more convinent. The subway on the otherhand is often packed and hot. There’s also always craziness going on in the subway, which I’ve never seen on the LIRR. This being said, the lirr is more expensive and caters to the working middle/upper class. Areas that have access to the LIRR tend to be higher class areas, whereas areas that only have access to the subway tend to be lower class areas.

The repressive component is simply described as fear. This includes the implementation of police, prisons, and courts so that people’s beliefs may align with the things that while keep them away from punishment (whether subjectively right or wrong). It is called repressive because it restricts the individual from being able to do whatever they want. In simple words, individual desire is repressed. The ideological principle is broken down into several subcategories describes as apparatuses. These apparatuses trick the individual into investing their intellectually energy into areas that wont make a difference but give them a sense of belonging. In turn, this sense of belonging promotes subservience and obedience (breeds docile individuals). The consumer apparatus entails dressing or owning specific articles to identify with a certain social group. For example, wearing glasses and dressing preppy eludes to the individual belonging to a higher social class while articles of clothing such as ripped jeans imply otherwise. Rather than someone’s income determining social class, a falsified illusion is brought about by materialistic items. Instead of finding ways to elevate in social class (make more money), an individual will feel richer than they are through materialism, therefore not finding the need to elevate, in turn remaining docile. Another apparatus discussed in the entertainment apparatus. The average worker is more likely to identify as a sports fan rather than a worker. Because this worker identifies as a “sports fan”, they will rather attend games than to come together with other workers to protest for higher wages and better rights. By shifting one’s identity to something more entertaining, people are less likely to focus on what really matters. The last apparatus discussed was the school apparatus. This entails the concept that we are subconsciously taught as children what we should believe. Five days a week, 8 hours a day; the school system implements into our heads what should be considered wrong and what should be considered right. The mind of a child is like a sponge, constantly absorbing the stimuli of its environment. The difference between repression and ideology is that repression is blatant control from the authorities in charge while ideology manipulates the individual into thinking that things are their own ideas.

Repressive Apparatus: The image above is a political cartoon illustrated during WWII. Fear mongering propaganda was a common repressive tactic used by the government

I understood ideology to be an individual’s belief system according to political socialization. Political socialization is essentially the basis by which an individual determines their political stance. There are many factors that influence political socialization; a prominent factor being family. It’s evident that a child’s relationship with their parents can possibly influence their political views. For example, a child who had a generally healthy upbringing will most likely adopt the same political views as their parents while a child who grew up in a toxic household will rebel against their parent’s political views. However, most children grow up to adopt the same political views as their parents. Another crucial factor that affects political socialization is one’s social identity. This includes aspects such as; race, gender, ethnicity, religion, and age. It’s been noted that men are considered to have more conservative views while female values tend to be more liberal. Economic self interest is also a component in determining political stance. An individual is most likely going to align with values that benefit themselves.

Most American’s resonate between two political ideologies. This first includes the Conservative (Right) point of view, while the second includes the Liberal (Left) stance. Conservatism believes in having the smallest government possible. It is said that a large government poses a threat to individual liberty. Instead, conservatives believe in stronger individual state power rather than allocating all strength to the federal government. In doing so, they claim that lower government spending results in lower taxes. Additionally, involvement in the free market and little regulation of big businesses are components of conservative beliefs. Conservatives also believe in having a strong military therefore the government should designate much of their budget to supporting military spending. Traditional values are a crucial forefront to the conservative agenda, specifically Christian values. On the other hand, Liberalism praises a big central government. Much of liberalism was inspired by New Deal policies. Liberalists consider the government to be responsible for social and environmental issues in order to ensure the well-being of all individuals and the planet. The liberal agenda opposes heavy military spending and support tighter gun control. Instead, liberalists believe that government spending should be allocated towards minority groups and that heavier taxes should be placed on the wealthy. Although liberalists support a big government, they do not believe the government should interfere with peoples personal lives. A prominent personal issue that liberalists oppose government involvement in is the right to abortion. Government disengagement in the free market and regulation of big businesses is a key principle of liberalism.

Althusser’s definition of ideology stems from the roots of capitalism. He describes how individuals believe in principles subconsciously due to repressive and ideological intervention. The repressive component is simply described as fear. This includes the implementation of police, prisons, and courts so that people’s beliefs may align with the things that while keep them away from punishment (whether subjectively right or wrong). The ideological principle is broken down into several subcategories describes as apparatuses. These apparatuses trick the individual into investing their intellectually energy into areas that wont make a difference but give them a sense of belonging. In turn, this sense of belonging promotes subservience and obedience (breeds docile individuals). The consumer apparatus entails dressing or owning specific articles to identify with a certain social group. For example, wearing glasses and dressing preppy eludes to the individual belonging to a higher social class while articles of clothing such as ripped jeans imply otherwise. Rather than someone’s income determining social class, a falsified illusion is brought about by materialistic items. Instead of finding ways to elevate in social class (make more money), an individual will feel richer than they are through materialism, therefore not finding the need to elevate, in turn remaining docile. Another apparatus discussed in the entertainment apparatus. The average worker is more likely to identify as a sports fan rather than a worker. Because this worker identifies as a “sports fan”, they will rather attend games than to come together with other workers to protest for higher wages and better rights. By shifting one’s identity to something more entertaining, people are less likely to focus on what really matters. The last apparatus discussed was the school apparatus. This entails the concept that we are subconsciously taught as children what we should believe. Five days a week, 8 hours a day; the school system implements into our heads what should be considered wrong and what should be considered right. The mind of a child is like a sponge, constantly absorbing the stimuli of its environment.