1. Within a federal system such as the United States, the citizens’ roles can vary and engage in both national and state governments through being able to vote in elections that affect them on both levels. Within a confederation, the citizens are mainly supposed to interact with or in regional governments considering that most power will reside in that since the central authority is weaker. In a unitary system, the central government holds the primary power and citizens have to deal with the consequences of that. Local governments if they do exist are given limited autonomy to do as they please. 

2. The division of power in federal systems particularly refers to the split authority between the national level and state level. Within these kinds of systems, there are certain responsibilities given to each government such as handling defense against the nation, education, law enforcement, etc. Having this delegation of responsibilities like this ensures that there are no imbalances of power like one branch of government having any significant power over another.

3. The federal government was able to shape the actions of state and local governments through specifically funding and adding additional policies/guidelines to control the situation. Federal agencies, specifically the CDC had issued health guidelines for the public to follow to avoid any contact with the virus. New York had also used mask mandates and social distancing in recommendation to these federal guidelines as it tried to contain and repress the virus.

1. Which social class wrote the Constitution, and which class was excluded?

The Constitution was mainly written by the wealthy elite of an extremely early American society which had included landowners, merchants, bankers, and other affluent individuals. These men had significant property holdings and economic interests to protect. According to Michael Parenti, the delegates were wealthy, with their goal being to establish a strong central government to protect that wealth through it’s financial interests. Beard also highlights that some large groups were deprived of the ability to vote, including slaves, women, indentured servants, and propertyless men. who were excluded from the political process due to strict voting qualifications. 

2. Was the social class structure of early U.S. society the same as today?

I would personally say that the social class structure of early U.S. society differs at quite a large margin from today’s society. In the 18th century,  power was concentrated in the hands of the wealthy minority, with legal barriers that prevented the majority of the population which included the poor, women, slaves, and non-property owners from participating in the political process. Today, while economic inequality persists, those legal barriers such as property ownership requirements for voting have been abolished, and the political system is more open to participation by all citizens​.

3. Why were the framers of the Constitution afraid of democracy?

The reasoning as to why the framers had feared democracy was because they associated it with the potential for the majority (the propertyless classes) to disrupt the interests that the wealthy minority had. They wanted to stay comfortable and not risk anything happening to their wealth. The framers were concerned about “the leveling impulses” of the majority, which could challenge the existing property distribution. Both Madison and Hamilton expressed concerns that a democratic government would not be able to protect the property rights of the affluent​ individuals in their society. The fear of popular uprisings, such as Shays’ Rebellion, further emphasized the need for a system that would maintain control over the masses​.

1. The main thing that reminds me about the concept of “faction” is of social class divisions. This can be seen through the use of factions. As the definition of a faction is described to be groups driven by specific interests that may conflict with the broader community, social classes are more represented through distinct groups that carry different interests based on economic status. The conflict that may occur between factions, like that between classes, derives from differing economic positions, which may lead to competing interests and possible conflicts to happen. Factions are known as groups united by passion or interest adverse to others, much like how classes operate with their own economic motives.

2. According to Federalist #10, the source of wealth through private property lies in the faculties (abilities and talents) of individuals. Some people possess certain faculties (skills) or capabilities that allow them to have the ability to acquire wealth, while others lack these faculties and remain poor. This diversity in an individual’s abilities can explain why some are able to own property while others do not. Madison argues that these economic divisions are apart of this society due to those with differing abilities. 

3. I personally disagree with this analysis of the differences between wealth and poverty. It suggests that the difference in a person’s wealth is their own inherent abilities to generate said wealth. That viewpoint glosses over many other factors that can contribute to economic inequality through social networks, education, or inherited wealth to name a few. Individual talent and ability are definitely factors in being able to find success, there are plenty of other factors that go into it. Many people can have that drive to succeed in life, but without the proper resources to give them that first step, they will remain in that same social class. It would be more fair to consider both individual effort and systemic barriers that cause those to not achieve their true potential. 

4. The core mission, or “first object,” of the U.S. government, according to Madison, is the priority of protection for the diverse faculties that help private property ownership.  This means that the government’s role in all of this is to guard property rights and to ensure that individuals can gain wealth in accordance to their own ability. Madison’s framing reflects the priorities of the wealthy class in 1787, who saw the government’s main function as safeguarding their economic interests, which contrasts with modern ideas about governmental responsibility.

5. I personally do not surprising that Federalist #10 favors a Republican (representative) form of government over pure democracy. Madison and the other framers of the constitution had their minds on if pure democracy would cause potential threats to the wealthy minority and allow the majority (the poor) to impose their will on them. By supporting a representative government, Madison had believed that with elected officials, he could be able to provide a buffer against the majority. This choice reflects the class dynamics of the time, where the wealthy feared the power of the masses that had the potential to disrupt their economic status.

1. I believe that the statistic on wealth inequality that surprised me the most upon reading 5.2 was the fact that 90% of Americans have little to no net assets to their names. The reason why this stood out to me so much was that despite there being families with many different backgrounds, most of them do not have a financial safety net for emergencies. That lack of financial security for a large majority of Americans displays the hidden struggles of being forced to live paycheck to paycheck. It highlights the distribution in wealth and how imbalanced it all is. Based on these statistics, only a small fraction of the country is capable of having the financial means to face the economic challenges that may face them in the future. It brings a possible discussion about the potential for economic stability and how realistic it is for the average American. 
2. Living in a society with extreme wealth inequalities can have implications that affect many aspects of daily life and the functioning of society. One of the most significant implications include reduced Social Mobility. Wealth inequality creates economic barriers, making it difficult for people in lower-income brackets to climb the economic ladder. Being able to acquire access to quality education, healthcare, and job opportunities is often limited to those with financial means, displaying cycles of poverty and limiting social mobility. The increased economic instability can cause the concentration of wealth in the hands of a few leads to economic instability because the majority of people lack the purchasing power to sustain economic growth. The super-rich can have the ability to change certain policies in ways that protect and enhance their interests, such as influencing tax laws favoring the wealthy often at the expense of the broader public.

The M-C-M’ diagram explains how capitalists maintain and increase their wealth by describing the flow of capital in a continuous cycle. Here’s a breakdown of the process:

• M (Money): The capitalist starts with money (M), which they use to invest in commodities, including raw materials, machinery, and labor.
• C (Commodity): The money is used to purchase commodities, which are then transformed through production. This stage involves the use of labor to create a new product that has greater value than the sum of its inputs.
• M’ (Money Prime): The newly created commodities are then sold for more money than the initial investment (M’). The increase in money, represented as M’ (M plus surplus value), comes from the added value created during production, primarily through the exploitation of labor.

In essence, the M-C-M’ cycle shows that the capitalist does not simply buy to consume but rather buys to sell at a profit. By continuously reinvesting and repeating this cycle, capitalists can accumulate more wealth. The key to this process is the surplus value. The difference between what workers are paid and the value of what they produce, which is then accumulated for the capitalists. This cycle allows capitalists to maintain their position in the wealth hierarchy and continuously expand their capital​.

1. The means of production refer to the tools and resources required to produce goods and services. The means of production is mainly seen through the use of non-human assets such as factories and machinery. An example of the means of production would be through the use of a factory with equipment and raw materials used to manufacture clothing as part of the means of production.
   Labor is the human effort used in the production process, both physical and mental. This includes the work done by individuals in various roles, such as factory workers assembling products or teachers educating students. An example of labor would be a worker assembling cars on an assembly line.

2. Value refers to the worth or usefulness of a product or service. The main thing that gives value to something is the amount of labor required to produce it and how much people are willing to exchange or pay for it. For example, a handcrafted item may be considered more valuable because of the time and skill involved in its creation, as well as its uniqueness.

3. Labor is directly tied to the creation of value. The more labor (in terms of time, skill, or effort) that goes into producing a good or service, the more value it typically has. The value of a product is determined by the amount of labor needed to create it. Essentially, labor is what transforms raw materials into something that holds value for consumers.

4. Labor refers to the actual work or effort a person puts into producing goods or services. Labor power, on the other hand, is the capacity or potential of an individual to perform work. It’s the ability to do labor, which employers pay for when hiring workers. The difference is that labor is the act itself, while labor power is the ability to work, which can be sold as a commodity in the labor market.

5. Surplus value refers to the difference between the value created by a worker’s labor and the wages they receive. The extra value produced by workers, beyond what they are paid, is retained by the employer as profit. This concept is central to being able to study social class in effect because it reveals how people’s labor is exploited, allowing the owners of production to accumulate wealth. An example of this would be, if a worker generates $100 worth of goods but is only paid $50, the remaining $50 becomes surplus value, which the employer keeps as profit.

1. As reading 4.2 is still unavailable at the time of writing this response, I will instead talk specifically about reading 4.1 on how it discusses social class. In the article, “What Determines How Americans Perceive Their Social Class?” it explores how Americans shape their own perceptions about their social class. The article highlights the socioeconomic factors that may lead to someone understanding their own social class such as their income, wealth, education, and occupation. As income is a significant, objective factor to being able to determine one’s own social class, those with higher incomes will tend to view themselves as middle or upper class. The article also discusses the concept of class self-identification which goes over what factors Americans consider when identifying their own social class. With about half of Americans consistently identifying as middle class as many Americans tend to make around $40-50k in household income. The article also goes over the factor of education and that depending on your highest level of education can influence how you perceive your own social class. This is spread through mainly a lower social class if you’ve completed less than high school, working class for completing high school, a split between working class and middle class if you’ve completed some college, being a college graduate leaning more towards middle class, and post-graduate work being split between middle class and upper-middle class. With all the points covered, the article provides a broad perspective on social class in America and how it’s not solely determined by one single aspect of your life. 

2. Using the concepts from reading 4.1, the social class of the people of a place like Harlem do have a mix of socioeconomic backgrounds, although I would say it is a mix of lower class to middle class citizens. I am not really surprised by this answer as I’ve been aware of my own family’s standing for a large amount of my life. I do believe that it is an accurate representation of the people living in my neighborhood. I have been aware of those who work in the area and they do fit in to that social class. 

3. From reading 4.2, the general pattern of social classes in NYC is that most people in the upper class tend to live more downtown. An example of this would be the East Side, Central Park South, etc. While more of those in the working class or lower class will live more uptown towards the Bronx or Harlem. 

1. The main distinction between owners and employees according to the reading 4.3 is that owners are primarily those who live off investments. For example, those with stocks, bonds, rent, and those with other forms of primary income. An example of an owner in this case would be a person who is wealthy, mainly obtaining their money through dividends without working for them. In contrast, the employees are individuals that live off wages, salaries, etc, from their own labor. An example of an employee would be an office worker who earns their wage by working under another supervisor or company manager overseeing other employees to complete similar tasks. The difference is based on how owners acquire wealth by benefiting from the labor of others while the employee earns their income by working themselves. 

2. The quote by Adam Smith states, “labor … is alone the ultimate and real standard by which the value of all commodities can at all times and places be estimated and compared. It is their real price; money is their nominal price only.” Within this quote it displays the idea that the value of products is perceived by the amount of labor put into that specific task. Even after that quote the sentence afterwards states, “What transforms a tree into a profitable commodity such as paper or furniture is the labor that goes into harvesting the timber, cutting the lumber, and manufacturing, shipping, advertising, and selling the finished product—…” It provides a perspective about the actual work, effort, and time that went into creating something of value. While the monetary value is representative of the value of said product only being used as a source of exchange. The quote suggests that the use of money itself to show value isn’t necessarily representative of the product itself, but of the labor that goes into it. 

3. The argument about class politics not being an identity, but rather as a structure of power was interesting to see being discussed. Heideman displays that socialists do not deny that class can form an identity, it is distinct from other identities because it is foundational to the power structures that shape society. This structural relationship gives class a special status in socialist thought, making it central to addressing not only class oppression but also other forms of inequality. This structural perspective emphasizes how class shapes people’s conditions, actions, and interests, which are inherently different from race or gender identities. Class conjures exploitation and dependence, where capitalists rely on workers for profit, and workers depend on capitalists for jobs.

4. In reading 4.4 in regards to the statement, “class structures are built around a close form of dependency” is referring to the relationship between the capitalists and workers and how they are dependent on each other. This is structural because of the fact that capitalists are relying on the workers to make profit while the workers are dependent on the capitalists to provide wages for their jobs. The capitalists want to maximize their profits for as little loss as possible and this philosophy causes a detriment to their workers through terrible work conditions and well-being being significantly reduced in the workplace. An example of this can be people who work in factories working in assembly lines, completing monotonous work. For instance, Apple factory workers are displayed to have unfavorable working conditions in their production facilities. This is particularly in overseas factories where numerous reports of consistently long hours, low wages, and low recreation times. These workers are extremely beneficial to the company as they can produce their products at an accelerated rate and for next to nothing in terms of wages. These workers are inherently trapped in these conditions for economic necessity as they need these wages to survive. This displays the direct imbalance between the workers, and the capitalist’s need for more profit.

1. A repressive state apparatus or an RSA to Althusser, refers to specific institutions like the police, the military, and courts that will enforce the rules through the threat of force or the immediate use of it if not followed. The reason why he calls it repressive is because of how these institutions use coercion to ensure that people will comply with the norms and rules set in place, often resulting in those that do not follow these rules with punishment. An example of this can be the police arresting someone for breaking the law and therefore using force to maintain control and to uphold the balance. 

2. Ideological State Apparatus or ISAs are institutions in society that can shape people’s beliefs, their values, and their own behaviors through the use of ideology in comparison to outright force. Examples of these ISA’s include schools, churches, media, their own family, and other cultural institutions. The main way that ISAs work is that they spread ideas of people accepting beliefs that align with those in higher power. For example, in the video, “Althusser on Capitalist Ideology and State Apparatuses”, he discusses the concept of behavioral reinforcement in school through detention, or being removed from class and how that influences children to become obedient workers in a capitalist system. They’re doing it in subtle ways to make people change the way that they think without direct force. Unlike an RSA that enforces the order by using physical force, ISAs are using a separate way to change the thinking of students to conform to the norm. 

3. The main differences between Repressive State Apparatuses and Ideological State Apparatuses are specifically in the way that they maintain and enforce societal norms. RSAs consisting of the police, military, and courts follow a path of coercion and force to make individuals from defecting from the laws in place. It is a more physical approach, using direct power to keep them in line. ISAs however like schools, churches, and the media operate through ideology and persuasion by shaping people’s values. They are embedding specific behaviors to make them willingly conform to the laws and norms in place. They work with a more subtle influence to guide people on how to appropriately think and act. 

4. https://youtu.be/6AWTVvitlb0?feature=shared

Within this video it talks about the use of the Pledge of Allegiance, the purpose it serves, and a brief history of it’s conception. The pledge of allegiance can be used as an example of an Ideological State Apparatus specifically through the education system. The act of reciting the pledge can reinforce the values of patriotism, to develop their own loyalty to the state, and their identity to their own country. I believe that it could also lead to thoughts of American Exceptionalism due to the constant repetition of the pledge reinforcing the idea that the U.S. is a special and superior nation. 

1.

a) In my perspective, ideology is a basis of values, and different beliefs that shape how individuals and groups understand the world around them. It can influence people’s choices, perspectives, and how they make their own decisions and in turn shows how they perceive political, and cultural issues. 

b) An example of this could be how capitalism is a system of individuals trying to achieve success in an economy directed by different markets. It values competition and that hard work is connected with economic success. 

c) I personally see ideology as something that operates in the background of someone’s life but is constantly being seen. We use these ideologies as a lens to view the world around us whether we’re aware of the choices we make or not. It changes how we see political policies or ideas, or to our own personal choices. They are powerful due to the fact that they can change the shape of our societies and become so intertwined with it that it is perceived as completely normal with no possible challenge to it. There are other ideologies and they can cause discussions about what’s right and what’s wrong, but that can allow for further evolution overtime as society changes. 

2. 

The difference between conservative and liberal ideology centers around the ideas of the role of the government upon the general population, individual freedom, and social values. Conservatives tend to gravitate and emphasize tradition, and want a more limited government. They think that the government should have a less significant role in regulating the economy by promoting the use of free-market principles that will provide the biggest benefit for most individuals. Liberals in contrast to these beliefs, focus on the equality of individuals, social justice, and the belief of government intervention to benefit marginalized groups by providing more opportunities for them. An example of conservative ideology shows that they generally are against the government intervening in programs that in their opinion does not deserve to have as much money pushed into it. Having the private sector take on this task means that the government would have reduced spending and therefore cause lower taxes. While liberals support the government spending on programs that would reduce economic disparities and to give more opportunities to those that are less fortunate. It’s mainly based upon how much power the government should have and the responsibilities people think it should have. 

3. 

Althusser defines ideology as a set of beliefs that people accept without questioning because it’s ingrained in institutions like school or everyday practices. To him, ideology functions in schools, churches, and the media which in turn controls how individuals perceive themselves and the world. People are controlled by their ideologies which means that they internalize the beliefs they have and will eventually act upon them either consciously or unconsciously. An example could be in a capitalist society that children are often taught to work hard in order to become successful. It captures the idea of personal effort being the main way to gain economic mobility although other factors may play against that belief.