1. Collective action problems arise whenever individuals or groups are in a situation where it would be better for all if everybody involved worked together, yet there is a disincentive to participate. People may not act because they believe their contribution will have little impact or the personal cost, in terms of time or money for example, outweighs the perceived benefit. The result is often free riding, whereby some individuals enjoy the benefits of the collective effort without contributing. These problems are common when the benefits of action accrue to everyone, making it easier to avoid participation in large groups where individual contributions seem less important. Other factors that make collective action hard include lack of incentives, coordination issues, and diverse interests. In regard to issues like climate change, people may feel that their action cannot make a difference and hence fail to act. Similarly, in the case of union membership, laborers may receive higher wages and better conditions without actually joining the union or paying dues. The overcoming of such problems often necessitates the provision of incentives, such as material or solidarity benefits, organization of smaller, more cohesive groups, or mandating participation, as seen in professional associations.
  2. The free rider problem is when people benefit from some service or resource without paying for, or putting effort into, the cost of providing that service. This occurs because people recognize their contribution is unlikely to make a difference, and thus decide not to participate or contribute, but instead, depend on others to take action. For instance, many NPR listeners appreciate the programs but do not contribute when NPR holds its fundraising campaigns.Because the fundraising campaign will succeed whether any one person contributes or not, many listeners are free riders who benefit from the service without paying for it. 
  3. Several strategies can be utilized to overcome collective action problems by encouraging participation and reducing the problem of free riding. One way is to offer inducements, which may come in any of several forms: material inducements, such as discounts or services provided by organizations like AARP; solidary inducements, or the social rewards of associating with people through an organization like the NAACP; and purposive inducements, or the satisfaction connected with working for a cause, such as the defense of civil liberties through the ACLU. Smaller, well-organized groups are more apt to successfully overcome the logic of collective action problems because consensus is easier to achieve, participation is easier to monitor, and free riders are more easily identified. Groups that have access to external support or financial resources can use these assets to mobilize members, offer rewards, or hire professionals like lobbyists. In some instances, coercion and mandates, such as requiring membership in professional associations or unions, result in a decrease in free riding due to the mandatory involvement. Lastly, disturbance theory postulates that external events or crises can galvanize collective action, with groups like environmental organizations beginning their mobilization after the publication of Silent Spring in 1962. Through applying these strategies, groups can work in an effective manner to overcome problems stemming from collective action and increase participation.
  4. According to disturbance theory, the origin and mobilization of groups arise due to dramatic events or disturbances within a political, social, or economic environment. Where an event happens-a crisis or significant social issue-the affected or concerned parties begin to take action through either the creation of new interest groups or the mobilization of current ones. For example, in 1962, the publication of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring, exposing toxic pesticides such as DDT, made a ripple. It brought environmental issues to the nation’s attention and spurred new groups, such as Greenpeace and American Rivers, into action. Increased activism fueled policy changes, such as a ban on DDT.

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