The M-C-M’ model shows how capitalists increase their wealth. It starts with Money (M), which is used to buy Commodities (C), like factory machinery or raw materials. These are turned into new products, which are then sold for more Money (M’). Profits are made by paying workers for less than the value of what they produce. The portion of labor that generates value beyond the workers’ compensation is called surplus labor, which turns into profits for capitalists. For example, let’s say the capitalist spends $100 on cotton and in hiring workers to turn this cotton into T-shirts. Once these T-shirts are made, they are sold for a higher price, let’s say $200, turning the initial investment into more money (M’). This profit of $100 is what’s called surplus value. The capitalist then reinvests some or all of this profit into buying more commodities, like more cotton or better machines, continuing the cycle. This ongoing process allows the capitalist to keep growing their wealth, always ending the cycle with more money than they started, which is how they remain wealthy over time.

1. Means of Production refers to the facilities, tools, and capital equipment necessary for the production of goods. An example is a factory where machines are used to manufacture cars. Labor is the human effort either physical or mental, that is used in the production process. In this case, workers in a factory assembling cars.
2.  As seen in the video, value in economic terms generally refers to the worth of a good or service. It is determined by the amount of necessary labor time spent in its production. What gives value to something, making it valuable, is essentially the labor that goes into producing it.
3. Labor and value are directly related in that labor is what creates value. The value of a product is fundamentally based on the amount of labor that is required to produce it.
4. Labor is the actual work that employees do whereas labor power is something else entirely. Labor Power refers to a worker’s capacity or ability to perform work and is considered a commodity that workers sell to capitalists, who in turn use it to generate products and profits. Labor power is what the worker sells in return of wages, not the labor itself.
5. The difference between the value created by labor and the salary of the employee is known as surplus value. It is an important idea to understand social classes and capitalist profit since it represents the value that employers gain from their employees’ labor. The surplus value is $100, for instance, if a worker receives $50 to make goods that sell for $150.

1. Distinction Between Owners and Employees

In Reading 4.3, the difference between owners and employees is about who controls the business and who works for it. Owners are people who have businesses or factories and make money from them. For example, a person who owns a big company and earns money from the profits is an owner. Employees, on the other hand, work for these businesses and get paid a set amount for their work. For instance, a worker who makes products in a factory and gets paid by the hour is an employee. In New York the minimum wage per hour is $16.

2. Understanding Adam Smith’s Quote on Labor: 

The quote by Adam Smith on page 28 of our reading 4.3 talks about how important work is in making money and creating value. It means that labor isn’t just about doing physical tasks; it’s about how work contributes to making and improving things that people need. Smith says that labor is key to building wealth and driving the economy forward.

3. Class as Not an Identity: 

Reading 4.4 argues that class should not be seen just like any other identity, such as race or gender. Instead, it suggests that class is more about how people are connected through work and ownership. For example, class isn’t just a label like being part of a social group; it’s about whether you own a business or work for one, and how that affects your role in society. In my opinion, one could identify as a certain gender or race but cannot identify being in a certain class if their position in their workplace contradicts it.

4. Understanding Close Form of Dependency in Class Structures:

 The idea of a “close form of dependency” in Reading 4.4 means that the relationship between business owners and workers is very interconnected and interdependant. Workers need jobs from owners to earn money for their livelihood, while owners need workers to run their businesses and make money. For example, if a restaurant needs cooks and waiters to operate, and the cooks and waiters need the restaurant to earn their salaries, this close connection shows how much they depend on each other to function well. A highly motivated workforce will result in efficient results which will result in higher profits that will pay for the wages of these workers.

1. Similarities and Differences in Readings 4.1 and 4.2

Both readings talk about social class, but in slightly different ways. The first article focuses on how people see themselves based on their income and education, even if their real situation might be different. It’s about how people feel they fit into a class, like working class or middle class.

Whereas, the second article looks at income differences between neighborhoods in New York City, using the subway to show how wealth changes from one area to the next. It focuses on the real differences in income, not just how people feel about their class.

2. Social Class in Jamaica, Queens (F Line)

In Jamaica, Queens, where the median income in 2011 was $47,813, most people would likely be considered working class or lower-middle class. This makes sense because many people in the area work essential jobs or in services. I’m not surprised by this, and I think it reflects the mix of hard-working families and professionals living in the neighborhood.

I have chosen to write about Jamaica, Queens for two reasons. I currently live in Jersey City, NJ so my neighborhood was not a part of this article. I had no stats to begin with but previously until about a few months ago, I used to live in Mid-wood, Brooklyn. Which is on the Q line of the subway at Ave H. I wanted to write about that neighborhood but unfortunately our link was having technical difficulties. https://projects.newyorker.com/story/subway/

Instead I used this article link for the questions and used the stats for Jamaica- Queens from the Professor’s video. Here is the article link. https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/idea-of-the-week-inequality-and-new-yorks-subway.

3. General Pattern of Social Classes in NYC

Article 4.2 of the New Yorker shows that income inequality in New York City is extreme. Wealthy neighborhoods are often very close to much poorer areas. Manhattan generally has wealthier residents, while parts of Queens, Brooklyn, and the Bronx have lower-income families. The subway highlights these big differences in income across the city. Being fairly new to this city and country I have noticed all these first hand as well. In my opinion, the lower income neighborhoods seem to be neglected as well by governing bodies. Where more help is needed, less help is given. Whether it is infrastructure or fundings, it seems that wealthier neighborhoods have been given more support than those who need it the most.

1. What is a Repressive State Apparatus?

A Repressive State Apparatus includes institutions that use force or threats to keep people in line and enforce laws. Althusser calls it “repressive” because it controls people through direct, physical means. For example, the police are a a repressive state apparatus because they have the authority to arrest people and use force if necessary to maintain public order and ensure laws are followed.

2. What are Ideological State Apparatuses?

Ideological State Apparatuses are institutions that shape our beliefs and values without using force. These include things like schools, media, and religious organizations. They influence how we see the world and what we think is important by promoting certain ideas and norms. For example, schools teach not just academic subjects but also social values and behaviors, helping to shape our understanding of how society works.

3. What is the difference between Repressive and Ideological State Apparatuses?

The main difference between these is in how they exert control. Repressive State Apparatuses use direct force and authority to enforce laws and maintain order, like the police or the military. They manage behavior through actions that involve physical power. Ideological State Apparatuses, on the other hand, influence people’s thoughts and values in a more subtle way. They shape how we think about things like culture, politics, and social norms through education, media, and religion, without using physical force.

4. Example of Ideology

A public service announcement by the Florida department of health promoting the benefits of healthy eating. This PSA is an example of an Ideological State Apparatus at work. It influences people’s beliefs about health and encourages them to adopt certain behaviors, like eating nutritious foods. It does this through persuasion and providing information, rather than using force, to shape how people think about their health and lifestyle choices. The link is attached below.

1. Understanding Ideology

Ideology is basically a set of beliefs and ideas that shape how people see the world and what they think is important. It helps guide how we think society should work and what we believe is right or wrong. For example, if someone believes that the government should stay out of people’s lives and let them make their own decisions, they might follow a conservative ideology. On the other hand, if someone thinks the government should help those in need and make things fairer, they might follow a liberal ideology. Ideology affects how people view issues like justice, freedom, and fairness. It’s a way to interpret what’s happening in the world and helps people decide how they think society should be run. Conservatives, for instance, might care more about individual freedoms and strong national defense, while liberals might focus more on helping the less fortunate and protecting the environment. Ideology also plays a big part in shaping political parties and movements, guiding what policies they support and how they debate important issues.

2. Differences Between Conservative and Liberal Ideologies in US Politics

In the United States, conservatives and liberals have different views on the role of government. The big difference is how much they think the government should get involved in people’s lives and the economy. Conservatives believe in less government involvement. They think people should be responsible for themselves and that the free market (businesses and the economy) works best without too many rules. Conservatives value things like individual freedom and tradition. For example, they might be against government-run healthcare because they believe it limits personal choice and increases government power. Liberals, on the other hand, think the government should play a bigger role in helping people, especially those who are struggling. They believe that the government can make society fairer by providing services like healthcare and education to everyone. Equality is really important to liberals, and they believe that government action is necessary to create equal opportunities for all. An example of this is how liberals often support higher taxes on the wealthy to help pay for social programs that benefit everyone. In short, conservatives want more personal freedom and less government control, while liberals think the government should help make society more equal.

3. Althusser’s Definition of Ideology

Althusser believed that ideology is not just a set of ideas we choose to believe, but something that is built into everyday life. He thought that things like schools, churches, and the media teach us how to act and think in ways that keep society running as it is, without us even realizing it. For example, in schools, students don’t just learn math or history. They also learn to follow rules, respect authority, and work within a system. Althusser would say that this teaches them to accept their place in society, which helps maintain the way society is structured. It’s not something students think about actively—it just happens as part of their everyday experience, making it part of the ideology.