1. Describe the primary differences in the role of citizens in government among the federal, confederation, and unitary systems.

• Federal system: Citizens participate in national, state, and local government. People vote for leaders at all three levels, and each level has its own responsibilities. An example is the United States, where we vote for the president, governor, and mayor.
• Confederation system: Most power belongs to the states or regions. Citizens are affected more by their state government because that is where most decisions are made. The national government has limited power.
• Unitary system: Most power belongs to the national government. Local governments have less authority and mainly carry out decisions made by the central government. Citizens have less influence at the local level.

2. Briefly explain how you understand the system of division of power.

The division of power is a way of sharing responsibilities between different levels of government so that one government does not control everything. Some examples are: the federal government handles national defense and immigration, New York State issues driver’s licenses and helps set education policies, and New York City manages local services like sanitation, public parks, and many public schools. This system allows different levels of government to focus on the issues they are responsible for while still working together.

3. How does the federal government shape the actions of state and local governments? Use New York during COVID-19 as an example.

During COVID-19, the federal government had a major influence on New York State and local governments. The federal government provided funding, resources, and health recommendations that helped New York respond to the pandemic. Some examples include federal funding for hospitals, testing sites, and vaccine distribution, CDC guidance on masks, social distancing, and vaccines, and relief programs that helped schools, businesses, and families who were struggling financially. Living in New York, many people remember the testing centers and vaccine sites that were set up throughout the city. While New York State made many of its own decisions, those decisions were often influenced by federal funding and recommendations. This showed how different levels of government can work together during a major crisis and is a good example of federalism in action.

1. A unitary system is a system in which citizens are most closely connected to the central/national government and the central/national government has almost all authority. Local governments are present but they are established by the center and serve it — citizens have little say at the local level on major policy. In a confederation, citizens primarily connect with their state or region government, which has the majority of power. The central government is weak, relying on the states, citizens have more influence at the local level but feel little of the central government in everyday life. It was the U.S. under the Articles of Confederation. Under a federal system (as it exists in the United States today), citizens are governed by both their national and state governments, and each possesses a certain degree of authority. Citizens vote both at the local and national levels and are directly affected by laws at both levels. This means that the citizens get more access points, but more complexity.
2. The concept of “division of power” involves a distribution of power between the national and state governments, with none having absolute authority. The Constitution allocates some powers to a single level of government (the federal government) in the United States, some to the states, and some to both levels of government (taxation, infrastructure-building). The concept is that power is spread out, not concentrated.
3. The impact of the federal government on NY state and local governments throughout COVID-19.
   One important example of how Washington influences state and local action during a pandemic is fiscal federalism, the three ways in which the federal government provided hundreds of billions to states through the CARES Act (2020) and the American Rescue Plan (2021). The state and city of New York were given billions in relief money, for unemployment, hospital space and local government salaries. Conditions were attached to federal money: states had to abide by federal rules as to how the money should be used. Guidance and pressure: The CDC and other federal agencies provided guidelines for public health, which New York largely adhered to (masking, social distancing, vaccination protocols). States technically could have established their own rules, but it could affect their federal funding and public legitimacy if they went against the CDC rules. Governor Cuomo worked closely with federal health officials in distributing ventilators and planning hospital surges. President Trump and then Biden declared a national emergency, which opened up federal resources and triggered FEMA, which directly coordinated with New York state and NYC on vaccine distribution, PPE supply chains and setting up field hospitals (e.g. Javits Center). When tension emerged: COVID proved the limits of federal control at the same time. New York schools, restaurants and mask mandates were decided by city and state police powers and the federal government had no case to force them open or shut. This caused some friction to be visible, especially with the Trump administration urging governors to reopen businesses more quickly than they wanted to. In sum, COVID demonstrated the power of the federal government to influence state action not through command, but through money and coordination, as is the true nature of American federalism.

1. The role of citizens in government varies among the federal, confederation, and unitary systems. Each system distributes political power differently. In a federal system, citizens participate in multiple layers of government local, state, and national. Power is by constitution divided. Kelly explains that federalism means “the central government does not control all the power in the nation. States also have powers reserved to them” (Kelly). This structure gives citizens more points of access. Citizens vote for state legislators, governors, members of Congress, and the president. So, they can influence policy at each level. In a confederation system, national government is weak, and most power rests with the states. Citizens primarily engage with their state governments because the central authority cannot act directly on individuals. While under the Articles of Confederation, national government could not tax or regulate citizens directly. It had to work through the states. In a unitary system, citizens interact mainly with the national government because authority is centralized. Local governments exist only if the national government allows them to. Unlike in federalism where power is intentionally divided to prevent tyranny. The unitary systems concentrate power, reducing the number of political arenas in which citizens can participate. The federal systems encourage broad citizen involvement across multiple levels, confederations limit national influence over citizens, and unitary systems streamline participation toward a single central authority.
2. The division of power refers to the constitutional arrangement that distributes authority among different branches and levels of government to prevent any single entity from becoming too powerful. In the United States, this includes both separation of powers and federalism. Kelly describes separation of powers as the system in which “the US Government is divided into three branches so that no one branch has all the power.” Each with its own function making, executing, and interpreting laws (Kelly). This prevents the concentration of authority within the federal government itself. At the same time, federalism divides power between the national and state governments. As Kelly states that federalism ensures that “states also have powers reserved to them,” meaning the federal government cannot control all policy areas (Kelly). This dual structure is reinforced by checks and balances. It allows each branch to limit the others. For example, “the president can veto legislation” and “the Supreme Court can declare acts of Congress unconstitutional” (Kelly). Together, these branches create a system in which power is intentionally fragmented to protect popular sovereignty and prevent abuses. The division of power is not just structural. It is a safeguard for citizens. Its to help ensuring that government remains accountable and limited.
3. The federal government shapes state and local actions through grants, mandates, and regulatory authority, all of which became especially visible during the COVID‑19 pandemic in New York. According to Krutz and Waskiewicz, federal grants. Especially categorical grants, limit state discretion because they come with “strict administrative criteria that guide project selection, performance, and financial oversight” (Krutz and Waskiewicz). During COVID‑19, New York relied heavily on federal funding through programs such as FEMA reimbursements, CARES Act relief, and enhanced Medicaid funding. The OpenStax text notes that Medicaid alone represents more than half of federal grant spending, and federal health‑care grants increased dramatically from $43.8 billion in 1990 to $320 billion in 2014 showing how dependent states are on federal health funding (Krutz and Waskiewicz). New York’s pandemic response, including hospital capacity expansion and testing programs, depended on these federal funds. The federal government also influences states through mandates, which require compliance in exchange for funding. As the text explains, crosscutting mandates allow the federal government to “withhold federal grants” if states fail to meet requirements (Krutz and Waskiewicz). During COVID‑19, New York had to follow federal public‑health guidelines to receive certain emergency funds and supplies. The federal government sets standards, but states implement them shaped New York’s pandemic policies. Like how the Clean Air Act sets national standards but leaves enforcement to states. Federal guidance on vaccines, travel restrictions, and workplace safety created a national framework that New York had to integrate into its own policies. The pandemic highlighted how federal tools funding, mandates, and regulatory authority directly shape state and local government actions, especially in times of crisis.

Kelly, Martin. “The 6 Core Principles behind the US Government.” ThoughtCo.com, ThoughtCo, 2019, www.thoughtco.com/overview-united-states-government-politics-104673.

Krutz, Glen, and Sylvie Waskiewicz. “3.3 Intergovernmental Relationships – American Government 4e | OpenStax.” Openstax.org, OpenStax, 23 July 2025, openstax.org/books/american-government-4e/pages/3-3-intergovernmental-relationships?message=retired.

—. “3.4 Competitive Federalism Today – American Government 4e | OpenStax.” Openstax.org, OpenStax, 2025, openstax.org/books/american-government-4e/pages/3-4-competitive-federalism-today?message=retired.

—. “3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Federalism – American Government 4e | OpenStax.” Openstax.org, OpenStax, 23 July 2025, openstax.org/books/american-government-4e/pages/3-5-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-federalism?message=retired.

—. “Introduction – American Government 2e – OpenStax.” Openstax.org, OpenStax, 23 July 2025, openstax.org/books/american-government-2e/pages/3-introduction.

Ted-Ed. “How Is Power Divided in the United States Government? – Belinda Stutzman.” YouTube, 12 Apr. 2013, www.youtube.com/watch?v=HuFR5XBYLfU.

1. The primary differences in the role of citizens in government among the federal, confederation, and the unitary systems are that in a federal system, like the United States, citizens have two layers of government to influence: national and state. They vote for presidents, governors, and local officials. For example, Americans can petition both congress and their state legislature. In a confederation like EU or the U.S. under the Articles of Confederation, the central government is weak, and citizens mainly interact with their state or regional governments. They rarely vote directly on confederation-level matters. In a unitary system like France or Japan, citizens answer mostly to the central government. Local governments do only what the national government allows. For instance, French citizens look to Paris for most laws, while local mayors have limited power.
2. Division of power means splitting authority so no single person or group has total control. The most common model is separating powers into three branches: the legislative who makes laws, the executive who enforces laws, and the judicial who interprets laws. For example, the U.S. Congress passes a bill, but the President can veto it, and the Supreme Court can strike it down if unconstitutional. This system checks and balances one branch against another, protecting citizens from abuse.
3. During the pandemic, the federal government shaped New York’s actions mainly through funding, rules, and guidance. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is issued travel advisories and masking requirements for public transportation, which NY had to follow. The CARES Act sent billions of dollars to NY state and cities like New York City for testing, vaccines, and school reopening. If NY wanted that money, it had to meet federal conditions, like reporting data on infections. Also, federal emergency declarations allowed NY to request FEMA resources for hospital beds and vaccination sites. So while Governor Cuomo issued stay-at-home orders, the federal government used money and mandates to push New York in certain directions, like prioritizing nursing home reporting or vaccine distribution.

OpenStax. American Government 2e. OpenStax, 2019. “3. Introduction.”

OpenStax. American Government 2e. OpenStax, 2019. “3.3 Intergovernmental Relationships.”

OpenStax. American Government 2e. OpenStax, 2019. “3.4 Competitive Federalism Today.”

OpenStax. American Government 2e. OpenStax, 2019. “3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Federalism.”

Ameerah Jameer

1. In a federal system, the role of citizens is to elect their representatives, who make up the national and state governments. Since both are independent governments, citizens will experience advantages or disadvantages depending on which state they live in.
   In a confederal system, it is the state governments previously elected by the citizens that decide what powers to delegate to the central government; in other words, their role is to ensure that their representatives maintain their sovereignty and identity in the face of demands from the union.
   In a unitary system, the role of citizens centers on national elections; that is, they focus on electing the central government, which establishes identical rules throughout the country.
   
2. I understand that the separation of powers is a way to prevent government tyranny; in other words, it is a way to prevent a single government from having so much power that it can abuse it. In a federal system, dividing power between the national and state governments prevents any single entity from making unchecked decisions that affect citizens. This is also achieved through the separation of powers within the same level of government; this power is divided into the Legislative, Executive, and Judicial branches. These three branches do not operate independently; on the contrary, each has constitutional tools with which it can check or modify the actions of the others.
   
3. The federal government has a significant influence on the measures adopted by state and local governments. The most influential way is economically; for example, during the pandemic, through federal laws such as the CARES Act, the American Rescue Plan Act, or the CRRSAA Act, New York received approximately more than $26 billion, which helped the state cope with the difficult situation during the COVID-19 pandemic. With those funds, they were able to finance hospitals, purchase medical equipment, distribute vaccines, and reopen public schools. This means that without federal government assistance, the New York government would not have been able to meet all the needs of its citizens during those difficult times.

1. The role of citizens is different in each system. In a federal system, citizens vote at both the national and state level, meaning they have a direct say in two levels of government at the same time and each level has independent power. In a unitary system citizens also vote, but most of the power sits at the national level, so even though they may elect local leaders those local governments are dependent on the national government and do not have much independent authority. In a confederation the citizen’s role is the most disconnected from the national government. All the real power sits with the states so meaningful participation is only at the state level. The national government can barely act without going through the states first, so citizen’s have almost no direct relationship with it.

2. The division of power is a way of splitting up who gets to be in charge of what between the state the federal governments. The federal government handles things that affect the whole country like war, foreign policy and interstate commerce. And state governments handle things like education, elections and public safety for their citizens. Then there are concurrent powers that both levels share like taxing and making laws. The point is that no single level of government gets to control everything, which is supposed to prevent any one group from having too much power over people’s lives.

3. The federal government shapes state and local government actions through two mechanisms: financial assistance and policy guidance. In terms of financial influence, federal aid constituted nearly 41 percent of New York State’s total receipts during the 2020-2021 fiscal year. Because the state was dependent on the federal government for nearly half of its budget during the crisis, its policy decisions inevitably aligned with federal priorities. The federal relief funds distributed through the CARES Act were restricted to specific approved purposes, which meant New York did not have full discretion over how the money was allocated. For example, the funds were directed toward specific areas such as payroll for public health and safety employees, hospital capacity, testing and contact tracing, and vaccine distribution. New York could not divert that money toward unrelated state expenses. By controlling what the funding could and could not be spent on, the federal government effectively determined which public health actions the state would prioritize and implement. In terms of policy guidance, when Governor Cuomo lifted COVID-19 restrictions in June 2021, he explicitly tied that decision to CDC recommendations, affirming that unvaccinated individuals remained responsible for wearing masks in accordance with federal CDC guidelines. Furthermore, the FDA authorized the first three COVID-19 vaccines between December 2020 and February 2021, and no state, including New York, could begin distribution until federal approval was granted. New York’s entire vaccination infrastructure was built around the federal government’s authorization timeline. This demonstrates that even decisions made at the state level were directly informed and shaped by federal health directives.

1. In a federal system, citizens vote for leaders at both the national and state levels, follow two sets of laws, and pay taxes to both. In a confederation, citizens only interact directly with their state government, which holds all the real power, while the central government stays out of their daily lives. In a unitary system, citizens vote for one single central government that controls everything, and any local offices only exist if the main government allows it.
2. The division of power means sharing control between the national government and the states so no single group gets too powerful. The federal government handles big-picture stuff for the whole country like printing money or military defense. States handle everyday local matters like running schools or issuing driver’s licenses. They also share some duties, like collecting taxes.
3. The federal government shapes what states do by using money as leverage and setting rules. During COVID-19, New York was facing a massive financial crisis, so the federal government sent billions through relief acts like the CARES Act. This money came with strings attached, forcing New York State and New York City to use it for specific things like keeping public transit running and funding local school programs. NY also had to follow CDC guidelines for testing and align local vaccine rules with federal workplace standards to keep getting support.

1. The federal system like the United States, divides up power between governments on the national and state level. Individuals can vote on the local, state, and national level, allowing them the ability to contribute to policy making. In confederation systems, power is given to the state government and the central government is weak. Political participation is typically seen with state governments rather than federal. Unitary systems means that all political power is given to the central government, and states can only follow the rules set for them by the national government.
   
2. The system of division of power provides a system for checks and balance, ensuring that one person or branch does not have more power over the others. Power is shared through the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, helping protect individual’s rights. It is also divided among state and central government, allowing us to protects rights through federalism. This system of division ensures that every branch of government can not gain more power than the other, allowing for equality.
   
3. While the United States is a federalist country, the national government influences local and state government through funding, regulation and aid. During the COVID-19 pandemic New York State received billions in federal aid through programs like CARES Act, CRRSA Act, and American Rescue plan. These programs helped with the distribution of vaccines, operation of schools and hospitals. New York State received $5.1 billion through the Coronavirus Relief Fund. The COVID-19 pandemic clearly demonstrating that while states do make policies for public health, they would not be able to make those without the aid provided by the federal government.

Sources:
https://www.osc.ny.gov/reports/covid-relief-program-tracker
https://openbudget.ny.gov/covid-funding/crf.html