The role of citizens is different in federal, confederation, and unitary systems. In a unitary system, most power is held by the national government, so citizens mainly influence decisions through that central authority. In a confederation system, most power belongs to the states or local governments, and the national government has very limited authority. In a federal system, like the United States, power is divided between the national government and the states, giving citizens multiple levels of government where they can participate and influence policy.

I understand the division of power as a way of preventing any one government entity from becoming too powerful. The Constitution divides power between the federal government and the states, while also separating power among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. This system creates checks and balances and allows different levels of government to address different issues.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, the federal government had a major influence on the actions of New York State and local governments. Federal agencies such as the CDC provided health guidelines, while Congress approved large relief packages that sent funding to states, hospitals, schools, businesses, and local governments. New York used federal funding to support testing, vaccination programs, public health efforts, and economic recovery initiatives. Although New York’s governor and local officials made many day-to-day decisions regarding restrictions and public safety measures, those actions were heavily shaped by federal guidance and financial support. This shows how federalism works in practice, with different levels of government sharing responsibilities while working toward the same goal during a national crisis.

1. Describe the primary differences in the role of citizens in government, among the federal, confederation, and unitary systems.
2. Briefly explain how you understand the system of division of power.
3. How does the federal government shape the actions of state and local governments? Write your answer based on doing a bit of research on how the federal government has influenced the actions of NY state and local governments, during the COVID-19 pandemic.

1. In a federal system, power is shared between national and state governments, and citizens vote at both levels like in the U.S. In a confederation, states or regions have most of the power, and the central government is weak, citizens mostly deal with their local leaders. In a unitary system, the national government has most of the power, and local governments do what the national government allows citizens mainly vote at the national level.

2. Division of power means splitting responsibilities between different levels of government so no one group has total control. For example, in the U.S., the national government handles military and money, while states handle things like schools and local roads. It’s about sharing power to keep things balanced.

3. During the COVID-19 pandemic  the federal government influenced New York by setting health guidelines, sending funding, and helping with vaccine rollout, but  New York still made its own rules, like mask mandates and school closures. The federal government gave support, but the state made decisions based on local needs.

Given our previous discussion about how the wealthy, capitalist classes wrote the Constitution, can you find ways in which the structure of US government represents the interests and wishes of the class of wealthy Americans? (for example: federalism, division of power, electoral college, the way elections are held, etc.…). Be specific and use examples. Note: this is an important question and spend some time on it – I think some version of it will be on our first exam.

1. Federalism Protects State Power and Local Elites

• Federalism divides power between national and state governments, allowing states to retain significant autonomy. This arrangement allowed wealthy landowners and elites in different states to protect their local interests without being overwhelmed by a strong central government.
• For example, Southern states-maintained control over slavery and local economic systems long after the national government existed. Today, federalism still lets wealthier states set policies that benefit their elites, while others resist redistributive policies pushed at the federal level.

2. Division of Power & Checks and Balances Slow Change

• The Constitution’s separation of powers between the legislative, executive, and judicial branches makes it difficult to pass sweeping reforms that might threaten wealthy interests.
• For example, laws that would heavily tax the rich or regulate large corporations often face vetoes, judicial challenges, or legislative gridlock due to these multiple layers of power. This system favors stability and gradual change over radical reforms.

3. The Electoral College Amplifies Wealthy States and Restricts Popular Influence

• The Electoral College gives disproportionate influence on smaller or less populous states, many of which have economies tied to wealthy interests (like energy or finance sectors).
• It also dilutes the power of large urban populations, where working-class and minority voters are concentrated, limiting the direct influence of majority popular opinion that might favor economic redistribution.

4. Senate Representation Favors Small, Often Wealthy States

• Each state gets two Senators regardless of population size. This means small states with fewer people, but often concentrated wealth has equal or greater legislative power than large states with millions of residents.
• This overrepresentation protects elite interests in smaller states and slows progressive policy changes that might arise from larger, more diverse states.

5. The Structure of Elections and Campaign Finance

• Because running for national office requires enormous funding, wealthy individuals and interest groups have an outsized influence through campaign contributions and lobbying.
• Politicians are incentivized to court wealthy donors to fund their campaigns, which shapes policy priorities. For example, the Citizens United Supreme Court decision (2010) enabled unlimited corporate spending, reinforcing elite control over elections.

6. Original Constitution’s Limits on Popular Democracy

• At the founding, direct election was limited (Senators were chosen by state legislatures until 1913, and only certain white male property owners could vote). This clearly reflects the farmers’ intent to limit political power to the propertied class.
• Even today, some remnants of this elite control remain through voting restrictions and gerrymandering that disproportionately affect lower-income and minority voters.

Summary:

The U.S. government’s structure—federalism, checks and balances, the Electoral College, Senate representation, and election financing—creates a system that disperses power in ways that protect elite economic interests and limit rapid change that might redistribute wealth or power. This setup reflects the original intentions of wealthy farmers who designed the Constitution to secure their class’s dominance.

1- with the system being decided in state and provinces citizens vote at each levels to represent them . Us Citizens mostly interact with their state government because it’s the form of government that makes laws and rules for the state therefore they pick the one that aligns with their needs and beliefs . 

Unitary system all government is is held by a higher power of leaders , 

2 – division of unity is the split and difference in the multiple types of government power . Each individual has its own expertise and own skills of power in the government. 

3- emergency funds grants and loans were given out to many due to businesses shutting down. A lot of people were dealing with financial difficulties which then led to some being homeless. 

Medicaid support for families that needed it due to once again lack of funds to keep up with the needs of treatment and complications that were brought by the virus . 

Support for local services a lot of pharmacies provided free testing to people in less fortunate communities to help reduce the multiplication of the already high cases . 

1. All citizens play an important role in voting for leaders to represent them and their ideas. In the Federal system, the power is divided as national and state where the citizens are allowed to participate and air their voices. Whereas, in a confederation, a huge majority of powers rest within the state and in a unitary system all power lies within the national government.

2. According to the readings, division of power is divided into two groups, Federalism and the States and Federal Government. Federalism comprises the central government and the state governments. One is the government at the national level and the other is at the sub national level. The central government is divided into three branches, namely, Legislative, Executive and Judicial. Each branch is responsible to handle different aspects of the country’s laws.

3.Almost every person’s life is impacted by a government system. The federal government helps the state and local government by providing financial fundings called grants, for healthcare, education, infrastructure and social services. For example, allocating funds for the making of roadways and other infrastructure. Federal grants are a key component of every state’s budget. Research shows that Medicaid dominates with 68.8% of federal grants in 2024, followed by income security 11.3%, transportation 7.6% and education 5%. “The Critical Role of Federation Partnerships with States and Local Governments During Covid-19” States that, the federal government provided an estimated $335 billion in funds to agencies for assisting states and localities in response to Covid-19. In addition, $721 billion in grants were awarded, outside of response, to state and local governments for a wide range of activities.

1. Briefly explain how you understand the system of division of power.

Division of power means splitting government power between different levels. In the U.S., we divide power between the national (federal) government and state governments. The federal government handles big things like defense or immigration, while states control local things like schools or driving laws. This helps make sure no one level has all the power.

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2. Describe the primary differences in the role of citizens in government, among the federal, confederation, and unitary systems.

In a confederation, local governments are strongest and citizens have more power locally. In a federal system, power is shared between national and local governments, so citizens vote in both. In a unitary system, the central government has most of the power, and local governments follow its rules, so citizens have less local influence.

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3. How does the federal government shape the actions of state and local governments? Write your answer based on doing a bit of research on how the federal government has influenced the actions of NY state and local governments, during the COVID-19 pandemic.

During COVID-19, the federal government gave money to New York State to help with hospitals, testing, and vaccines. It also set rules and guidelines that states followed, like travel restrictions or school closures. While New York made its own decisions, it was still influenced by federal funding and health rules.

1. In a unitary system the central government holds all of the power. citizens mostly interact with the national government, and local governments have little independent authority. In a confederation system power is held by regional or local governments. Citizens have the most influence here because they are closely tied to local leadership. The national government is very weak. In a federal system, power is shared between the national and state governments. Citizens vote for both national and local leaders and influence on decisions at multiple levels.
2. Division of power means that authority and responsibilities are split between different levels of government national, state and sometimes local. In a federal system like the United States, the national government handles things like defense and foreign policy, while states manage things like education and public safety. This system is designed to prevent too much power from being concentrated in one place and allows for regional flexibility.
3. Funding: NY received billions in federal COVID-19 relief through the CARES Act and the American Rescue Plan to support hospitals, schools, public health and vaccine roll out. Guidelines: Agencies like the CDC and FEMA issued health guidelines that informed NYs mask mandates, business shutdowns, and vaccines policies. Flexibility and Mandates: The federal government gave states temporary authority, like allowing pharmacy technicians to give vaccines but also required states to follow certain reporting and equity rules to get funding. Cuts and Pressure: In 2025 NY faced the loss of $300 Million in federal COVID health funds. The state sued the federal government arguing that these cuts would hurt public health and violated congressional goal.

6.1

1. Based on the arguments presented in Readings 6.1 and 6.2, which social class wrote the Constitution, and which class was excluded and not allowed to participate in this process? In your comment, make sure you clearly specify the difference between the two classes by giving examples from the readings.

The social class that wrote the constitution was exclusively the upper class, and even with voting you needed to be a white man who owned land-no more than 10 percent of the population. An example would be that of what James Madison said when he wrote in Federalist 10 how “the most common and durable source of faction has been the various and unequal distribution of property [that is, wealth].” Here by stating its “durable” he claims that the inequality is what would help the nation sustain.

2. Would say that the social class structure of early United States society was the same as ours today, or different? Explain.

This is not a yes or no question. I would break it into two parts and say that economically it is similar to such a large income inequality, however in terms of social status there has been a slight difference in that slavery no longer exists and thus all humans are (supposed) to have equal rights, even those that are poor. However, this system is in many ways rigged, with many police officers showing prejudice and people wrongfully sent to jail and stripped of their rights. Still, progress, whereas I would say economically we still have a major wealth gap. 

3. Why were the people who wrote the Constitution so afraid of democracy? Hint: think about how to answer this question by discussing it in terms of social classes.

They were afraid of Democracy because they did not trust the common people, and felt that they swayed too much with common political movements. Alexander Hamilton noted this when he stated that “the people are turbulent and changing; they seldom judge or determine right.”

6.2

1. What concept that we have already discussed does “faction” remind you of?

Personally, faction reminds me the most of the workers when we discussed the relationship between owners and workers, as the founding fathers, a wealthier class, expressed it to represent the general community, in a way that seemed below them or that they owned them. Owners held this power over workers with elements such as surplus value. To me, the founding fathers were the owners and the factions represent the workers.

2. According to Federalist #10 (written by James Madison), what is the source of wealth (private property)? What factor explains why some people get to possess wealth by owning private property, and others don’t (thus remaining poor)? This is a key question, because it shows how the authors of the Constitution thought about the difference between different classes of Americans! HINT: focus on the passage that begins: “The diversity in the faculties (WHAT DOES FACULTIES mean or refer to?) of men, from which the rights of property originate, is not les….”

I think that with his words before this of  “As long as the connection subsists between his reason and his self-love, his opinions and his passions will have a reciprocal influence on each other; and the former will be objects to which the latter will attach themselves” he/the authors thought that a man’s faculty was values and interests dictated where and what he pursued and what land or assets he would seek out, and thus diversity in the faculties means that different men have different interests that lead them to what property, or no property, they own. Thus, I think they are saying that men are responsible for the social class they belong to.

3. Do you agree with this explanation of wealth and poverty?

In my opinion, tying people to social class based upon their interests and pursuits is discrediting the biased and nepotistic aspects of socioeconomic inequality. Many, some would argue most, of those not owning land or owning only small farm land were born into families in these positions and did not have the time, money or status to pursue another option. Furthermore, there were the biased aspects such as men who were Irish or Scottish being written off for their ethnicity, and of course those that were Black having no status due to the color of their skin. Thus, Madison and the Federalists do not take accountability for the systemic aspects that lead to a lack of social mobility.

4. What is the core mission (“first object”) of the US government? Does this surprise you, does it sound different from what our society today seems to suggest the core mission of the government is? Explain.

The core mission of the US government was to create a society that was attached to popular opinion, but to keep the social class system (factions) intact with some at the top and many at the bottom. James Madison writes “To secure the public good and private rights against the danger of such a faction and at the same time preserve the spirit and form of popular government is then the great object to which our inquiries are directed.” He found that disrupting factions would hurt the people, but I think we can infer he also worried it would hurt himself in the upper class. No, it does not surprise me, as I do not think that at that time they were striving for an equal society, but rather a society closer to equality than the monarchy that existed in England. It also does not surprise me considering the founding fathers enjoyed the privileges of their social status, and would not want to create a government that could take that away from them. Today, I think there is more discourse and nuance about this, with the terms of equity and equality, however due to the power and influence the rich have over our senators and representatives I would say the factions are still very much alive.

5. Given the discussion in questions 1-4, are you surprised that Federalist #10 is not in favor of democracy, and supports a Republican (representative) form of government? Why would the author dislike a (pure) democratic form of government? Hint: think about how this question connects with the social classes…

Similar to my answer above, I think that I am not surprised as I knew that two things were true: the founding fathers did not fully trust the American people and found that a popular opinion was not necessarily a correct opinion, and that they knew giving too much power to the people could risk them losing their higher social status when the upper class was only a fraction of the population. (Most of them were rich and of higher status, and James Madison was certainly of wealth and land owning.) Furthermore, the founding fathers made the representative government still powered by those of wealth and status considering the only ones who could vote for the representatives were white men that owned land-keeping the interests in that of the social class they were in.

7.1

1. Briefly explain how you understand the system of division of power.

This is a blanket term, but in the context of what we are reading it is the difference between power depending upon only the central government (one government that applies to the entire nation regardless of the different local areas) power depending upon only local governments (each region of the nation holds separate legislation over their domain) and where power is split between the central government and the local government.

2. Describe the primary differences in the role of citizens in government, among the federal, confederation, and unitary systems.

In a confederation system, the government is controlled by a synthesis of the different local governments, and thus people have the most power. In a federal system, people have some, but less power as the local government shares power with the central government. On the other end, in a unitary system the power is directed only to the central government and thus the needs that vary depending on the location of the citizens may be disregarded, so perhaps citizens have the least power.

3. How does the federal government shape the actions of state and local governments? Write your answer based on doing a bit of research on how the federal government has influenced the actions of NY state and local governments, during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Governor Andrew Cuomo stated that he felt the federal government had failed to act on COVID despite the actions of the people, and so when the delta variant emerged he exercised local power in creating a statewide New York mandate for people to take vaccines that worked in any aspect of healthcare in an attempt to prevent the spread. Thus, at times neglect from the federal government may push local governments to take more charge in shaping the lives of the citizens living within their region. This is seen on another major scale when the federal legalization of abortions in Roe v. Wade was lifted and it was left up to the states, as we now have 19 states that now ban or restrict abortions.