1. The main difference between the federal, confederation, and unitary systems is how power is shared. In a unitary system, the national government has most of the power, and local governments only follow its rules. In a confederation, the states or local governments hold most of the power and the national government is weak. In a federal system, like in the United States, power is shared between the national, state, and local governments. This means citizens can vote and participate in all three levels, which gives them more chances to have their voices heard.
2. The division of power means that both the national and state governments have their own roles. The national government deals with larger issues such as defense, foreign policy, and money, while the state governments handle local problems like education, safety, and transportation. Some powers, like collecting taxes, are shared by both. This separation helps prevent one level of government from becoming too strong and allows states to make laws that fit their people’s needs.
3. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the federal government had a big impact on how New York State and local governments responded. The federal government provided money, vaccines, and medical supplies, and shared safety rules through the CDC. In return, New York had to follow certain national health guidelines. Even though New York could decide when to open or close schools and businesses, it still depended on federal funds and direction. This shows how in a federal system, the national and state governments must work together to protect citizens during a crisis.

1. A unitary system can be best described as a single national governmental system where most power is centralized. States and municipalities have only those powers that the central government allows. Citizens’ primary route to influence is through this central government; they vote, lobby, and petition at the national level.
   A confederation is the extreme opposite; the constituents or states hold most of the power, and the central or confederal authority is limited to handling joint matters such as defense, foreign affairs, and coordination. Citizens’ influence tends to be exercised mostly through their states; the central body is less directly accountable to individual citizens.
   In a federal system, power is divided and shared between the national government and state governments. Both levels have certain independent domains. Citizens have multiple pathways to influence: local, state, and national. Because power is split, citizens can pressure different levels for different issues.
   
   So, in a unitary state, local governments are more or less extensions of the central government, and their powers can be revoked. In a confederation, the central government is weak and often subordinate to the states, and in federal systems, there’s a built-in tension and negotiation among levels, and citizens have a more layered set of venues for influence.
   
   
2. When talking about division of power, I believe we’re talking about federalism, where powers are divided between national/federal and state/local governments, where each level gets certain enumerated powers and some shared, the separation of powers, where within each level of goverment, power is split among branches so no one branch dominates, and checks and balances, which are mechanisms by which each branch or level can restrain the others, preventing any abuse of power. Thus division of power is meant to prevent tyranny, whether from the central government or local elites, by creating overlapping jurisdictions and mutual oversight.
   
   
3. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the federal government shaped state and local action in several concrete ways in New York, and especially through funding and mandates:
   The CARES Act and subsequent stimulus packages distributed billions in federal aid to states and cities. For New York City, around $5.3 billion in aid.
   New York State got over $14 billion in federal education COVID response funding, which affected how school districts operated, including remote learning and support services.
   The federal government, via agencies like the CDC, FDA, and HHS, issued guidelines on social distancing, mask mandates, vaccine protocols, etc., which state and local governments often adopted.
   In sum, the federal government can use funding, guidelines, emergency powers, and regulatory influence to steer states and municipalities. During the pandemic, the states kept many of the decision rights, but they had to operate within a structure shaped by federal initiatives.
   

By Israt Kaniz Nipa

1. 1. Citizen Roles in Different Government Systems In a federal system like the United States, power is shared between the national and state governments. That means citizens can take part in both we vote for the president and also for local leaders who make decisions that affect our community. In a confederation, most of the power stays with the local governments, and the central government is weak. People may have more say in local issues, but the country might not be very united overall.In a unitary system, the central government controls most of the power. Citizens focus mainly on national decisions, which keeps things organized, but local needs are sometimes ignored.

2. My Understanding of Division of Power
The division of power, or federalism, is about splitting power between different levels of government so no one has full control. Some powers belong to the national government, like defense and foreign policy, while others belong to the states, like schools and local laws. I think this system is meant to keep a balance so each level can handle what it’s best at.

3. Federal Influence in New York During COVID-19
During the pandemic, the federal government helped New York in a few big ways.

• They sent funding through programs like the CARES Act to support hospitals and businesses.
• Medical teams and the National Guard were sent to help when cases were rising fast.
• Schools got federal money to reopen safely and fix learning gaps.

This showed how the federal government can guide states by giving them resources and setting national goals. It also reminded me that in times of crisis, both levels of government have to work together to protect people.

In conclusion,Federalism can be complicated, but it gives both the national and local governments a chance to respond in their own ways. The COVID-19 situation proved that the system works best when there’s cooperation and shared responsibility.

Federalism and Governance

1. The primary differences in the role of citizens across these systems depend on where the government’s power is located. The Unitary System, which is like modern France, is the most straightforward: all the power is held by the national government, and citizens focus their influence primarily on electing those national leaders. The Confederation presents the opposite, and in my opinion, the most confusing for the citizen. I think of the U.S. under the Articles of Confederation—the people elected a government, but what many didn’t realize was that the states truly held the final say. The national government was so weak that it was essentially paralyzed, meaning the citizens’ ultimate power belonged almost entirely to the state governments, and the central government needed the state’s consent to act. The Federal System, which is the current U.S. model, strikes a balance by giving citizens a unique role at two levels: we elect representatives at both the national federal level and the state level, ensuring we can hold both spheres of government accountable at the same time.

2. I understand the division of power primarily through the Horizontal Division, which is also known as the Separation of Powers. This system prevents concentrated authority by distributing national power among three distinct branches: the Legislative branch makes laws, the Executive branch administers laws, and the Judicial branch interprets laws. This structure relies on Checks and Balances to function correctly. The government shutdown, like the one that began on October 1, 2025, powerfully illustrates the friction created by this system. When the Legislative Branch fails to pass the necessary appropriations to fund government operations, it creates an immediate crisis for the Executive Branch, which is forced to have “essential” federal workers keep working without pay. This deadlock shows how the system, designed to prevent tyranny, can result in real-world consequences when the branches completely freeze up because they fail to agree. However, mandatory spending for programs like Social Security continues, showing that some Executive functions are intentionally insulated from this annual conflict.

3. The federal government mainly shapes state and local actions through financial control, using fiscal tools to provide incentives or apply pressure a dynamic called coercive federalism. This influence was pervasive in New York State during the COVID-19 pandemic.

• Influence through Incentives -Federal Grants: The core mechanism was money used as a massive incentive. The federal government passed huge laws like the CARES Act and ARPA that offered New York State billions in federal grants. Since New York couldn’t afford critical services like setting up testing and vaccination sites, they took the cash payment, but this meant agreeing to follow the rules that came with it. This is how the federal government pushed states to adopt national health goals.
• Influence through Direct Mandates-Coercion: The federal government’s coercive power was most evident through direct mandates. This went far beyond simple guidance, forcing many people to be vaccinated or lose their jobs, despite the vaccine being developed so quickly. This mandatory enforcement is a perfect example of coercive federalism, where the federal government stretched its authority over state and local actions. The controversy is even clearer today; the President has since stated the mandates weren’t necessary and didn’t prevent catching COVID, and there are now efforts to erase the vaccination records of those who complied. This recent turn of events underscores just how much power the federal government exerted over individuals through its authority to set standards during a national crisis.

Differences in Citizen Roles Across Government Systems

In a federal system, like in the United States, citizens have a role in government at different levels: local, state, and national. This allows people to have a say in decisions that affect their community as well as the whole country.

In a confederation, most of the power belongs to the local governments, and the central government is weak. Citizens can have more influence over local decisions, but the country may not be very organized as a whole.

In a unitary system, the central government has most of the power. Citizens’ participation is mostly focused on national decisions. This can make laws more consistent across the country, but local needs might not always be considered.

Division of Power

Division of power, also called federalism, is when the government’s powers are split between the national government and the states. Some powers are only for the national government, some are shared, and some are reserved for the states. This system helps make sure that local issues can be handled by the state while national issues are handled by the federal government.

Federal Influence on New York During COVID-19

During the COVID-19 pandemic, the federal government helped guide what New York state and local governments did.

• Money for Support: The federal government gave New York funding to help with public health and the economy.
• Healthcare Help: Federal medical teams and the National Guard were sent to New York to help hospitals during the surge in cases.
• Schools: Federal funding through programs like the American Rescue Plan helped schools reopen safely and deal with learning gaps caused by the pandemic.

These actions show how the federal government can affect state and local governments by providing money and resources that influence their decisions.

1. Describe the primary differences in the role of citizens in government, among the federal, confederation, and unitary systems.
2. Briefly explain how you understand the system of division of power.
3. How does the federal government shape the actions of state and local governments? Write your answer based on doing a bit of research on how the federal government has influenced the actions of NY state and local governments, during the COVID-19 pandemic.