1. Gilmore recommends that racial capitalism depends on the namelessness of whiteness. When whiteness is treated as the neutral or global standpoint, racial hierarchy becomes built into economic and social structures. on the other hand, racism functions not only through unambiguous prejudice but through systems made & designed around white norms and advantages.
2. Gilmore argues that the criminal justice system invented the category of “criminal” through policing practices, sentencing policies, and surveillance concentrated in marginalized communities. The structural choices produce a continuity of a population labeled criminal, despite of actual crime rates. I completely agree with her point because evidence shows mass incarceration stretched through policy decisions , not rising crime.
3. Gilmore defines “liberation struggle” refers to collective efforts to change the social and economic climates that create inequality & state anarchy. This is not only about freeing individuals but about reforming the systems that produce violence, so communities can live with dignity and security.

1. In the Wal-Mart case, The Supreme Court ruled against the women employees and denied their class-action lawsuit. The Court said the women did not meet the requirement of “commonality”, which is necessary for a group to be treated as a single legal “class.” The Justices argued that Wal-Mart did not have one unified discriminatory system. Rather, decisions about income and promotion were made by many different stone managers around the country. The problem was that each women had a situation unique to them, so the court said they could not show a common injury , and therefore couldn’t sue as one large group.

1. The court system is better appropriate to secure individual rights because judges are selected, not elected, allowing them to make choices based on the constitution instead of political pressure or public opinion. Unlike congress or the president, who respond to voters, judges can focus on being fair and just. For example in Brown v. Board of Education (1954), The Supreme Court ended school segregation even though it was despised in many states, protecting individual rights over majority rule.

2. While the Supreme Court is not democratic in the sense that judges are not selected, this independence actually secures democracy. Federalist No. 10 warned against “majority factions” that could hinder minority rights. Because justices serve lifetime terms, they can make decisions based on law, not politics or class interests. This system prevents potent groups from controlling justice and keeps the Constitution as the highest authority, even over public opinion.

1. Patricia Williams disputes that the War on Terror is a new kind of war because it isn’t battled between nations but against an abstract enemy, terrorism. Unlike traditional wars, it has no clear battleground or destination. This allows the government to increase surveillance and reduce civil liberties in the name of national security.

2. The Patriot Act’s “Roving Wiretaps” allow agents to track multiple communication devices under one warrant. While this helps track suspects, it can infringe the Fourth Amendment, which protects against useless searches and expects specific warrants. The vast nature of these wiretaps risks surveillance of innocent people.

3. “Sneak and Peek” warrants let different authorities browse property without instantly notifying the person. Though intended to stop suspects from fleeing or destroying evidence, they also challenge Fourth Amendment protections by allowing secret government searches and weakening privacy rights.

1.The Establishment Clause is part of the First Amendment, which says that “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion.” This indicates that the government cannot help, advance, or financially promote any religion. It guarantees disunity between church and state so that citizens have the liberty to practice any religion, or none at all, without government intervention or interception.

2.Yes, burning the U.S. flag is secured under the First Amendment as a form of nonverbal speech. This was decided in the 1989 Supreme Court case Texas v. Johnson. The Court ruled that committing arson to the flag to express political protest is a form of free expression, and the government cannot block it simply because people find it offensive. The First Amendment secures not just spoken or written communications but also actions that convey a political message.

3.When someone says “I’m pleading the Fifth,” they are going back to their Fifth Amendment right against the act of making a statement or providing evidence that could implicate oneself in a crime. This shows that they have the right to remain silent and not answer questions that could be used against them in a criminal case. It’s often used in court or congressional hearings to avoid giving testimony that might lead to legal trouble. This right is part of the broader protections in the Bill of Rights that ensure fair treatment for people accused or suspected of crimes.

1. Roles of Citizens in Federal, Confederation, and Unitary Systems

In my opinion, citizens have more involvement in a federal system because power is shared between the national and state governments. People can vote for leaders at all levels and have more ways to take part in government decisions. In a confederation, most power stays with the states, so citizens mainly focus on state governments. In a unitary system, the national government has the most control, and local governments mostly follow what it decides.

2. Division of Power

I understand the division of power as a way to keep the government balanced. Power is divided between the three branches legislative, executive, and judicial and also between the national and state governments. This setup helps prevent any one part from getting too powerful and protects the rights of the people.

3. Federal Influence on New York During COVID-19

During COVID-19, I think the federal government played a huge role in helping New York. It gave funding through the CARES Act and American Rescue Plan, and the CDC provided health guidelines that shaped mask rules and reopening plans. Even though New York made its own choices, it still relied on federal support to handle the crisis and keep people safe.

1. According to James Madison, a faction is a group of citizens, whether a majority or a minority,united by a common interest or passion that is adverse to the rights of other citizens or to the interests of the community as a whole. In short, a faction is a special-interest group that pursues its own goals at the expense of the common good.

2. Madison says there are two methods, by removing their causes, or by controlling their effects. He argues that removing the causes is impossible (or worse than the problem itself), so the best approach is to control their effects through the structure of government.

3. Madison identifies two possible ways to remove the causes, Destroy liberty, which allows people to form differing opinions, but that would destroy political freedom itself. Make every citizen have the same opinions, passions, and interests, which is impossible because people naturally differ. So, Madison concludes that the causes of faction cannot be removed, only controlled.

4. Madison says the first object of government is the protection of people’s different abilities and property. The government should protect everyone’s right to own and use property freely.

5. Not really. Madison supports a republic because it helps control factions and protects property. A pure democracy could let majority groups take away the rights of minorities or property owners.

1. Based on the readings from Parenti and Beard, the Constitution was mainly written by the wealthy, property-owning class, landowners, merchants, and creditors who wanted to protect their economic interests. These were men who already had power and money, and they didn’t want to lose it. The excluded class included poor farmers, workers, slaves, women, and anyone without property, who had no voice in government and couldn’t vote. Beard points out that these groups were completely left out of the Constitutional Convention, while Parenti explains that the framers feared letting “the people” have too much power because they thought the poor majority might threaten property rights. Basically, the Constitution reflected the interests of the few, not the many.
   

2. I’d say it’s similar in some ways but different in others. Back then, social class was based mostly on land and property ownership, while today it’s more about income, wealth, and education. But even now, a small group of people still hold most of the money and power. Parenti’s argument about the farmers wanting to keep power out of the hands of ordinary people reminds me of how big corporations and the wealthy still have more political influence today. So, while the system has changed on the surface, more people can vote and have rights, the basic inequality between rich and poor hasn’t really gone away.

3. The framers were afraid of democracy because they thought it could threaten their wealth and property. They worried that if too many people, especially poor farmers and laborers, got political power, they might vote to cancel debts, redistribute land, or raise taxes on the rich. Parenti says they feared what he calls the “leveling impulses” of the propertyless majority. Beard’s reading supports this by showing that most framers had personal financial interests they wanted to protect. So, instead of a true democracy, they created a republic, where power stayed mostly in the hands of the educated and wealthy few. They claimed it was to prevent “mob rule,” but really, it was to protect their class interests.

1. The statistic that made the biggest impression on me was that worker productivity went up by 75% in the last three decades, but real wages actually went down. If wages had kept up with productivity, the minimum wage would be over $14 instead of $7.25. This shocked me because it shows how hard people are working, yet they’re not seeing the benefits. Instead, most of the profits go to executives and investors, which feels really unfair.

2. Living in a society with this much wealth inequality creates a lot of problems, people working full-time can still end up in poverty, families drown in debt, and young people leave school already behind because of student loans. I see this dynamic in everyday life with the housing crisis and student debt crisis. For example, many college graduates are working multiple jobs just to afford rent, while big corporations report record profits. It shows how the gap between the rich and everyone else keeps growing.