1. Federal System: Citizens have to do with both federal and state governments, each with distinct, constitutionally defined powers. For example, citizens pay taxes to, and vote in federal and state governments. A good example is the U.S., where states and the federal government check each other.

Confederation: Individuals deal primarily with state/regional governments since the central government is weak and dependent on state consent. States are sovereign, and therefore citizens’ political influence is localized.

Unitary System: Power is centralized (e.g., France or Japan). Citizens interact almost solely with the national government, which may delegate limited powers to regional governments. Regional governments lack constitutional autonomy and can be overruled by the central government.

2. Exclusive Federal Powers: Foreign policy, currency, national defense. Reserved State Powers: Elections, policing, education. Shared Powers: Taxation, infrastructure, environmental regulation. The 10th Amendment reserves non-delegated powers to states, but mechanisms like federal grants, preemption, and judicial review (e.g., Supreme Court invalidating state laws) maintain balance. The intent is for states to react to local needs and the federal government to national needs, with the overlap being worked out through cooperation or conflict (e.g., COVID mandates and state sovereignty).

3. Funding Conditions: CARES Act and American Rescue Plan funding pressured states to spend on testing, vaccine distribution, and economic stimulus. NY adhered to federal policy to obtain billions in aid.

Public Health Mandates: CDC mask, social distancing, and travel ban guidelines impacted NY policy. Federal emergency declarations enabled FEMA aid to NY hospitals.
Vaccine Distribution: Federal control via Operation Warp Speed forced states like NY to align distribution logistics and prioritize federal eligibility criteria.
Interstate Coordination: Federal policy standardized quarantine protocols and travel advisories, which NY followed to align with neighboring states.
Legal Authority: While NY retained autonomy (e.g., implementing state-level lockdowns), federal leverage via public messaging and resource allocation encouraged compliance with national efforts.

This interplay highlights how federal grants, mandates, and crisis leadership can steer state responses, even in a decentralized system.